trgm_regexp.c

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/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * trgm_regexp.c
 *    Regular expression matching using trigrams.
 *
 * The general idea of trigram index support for a regular expression (regex)
 * search is to transform the regex into a logical expression on trigrams.
 * For example:
 *
 *   (ab|cd)efg  =>  ((abe & bef) | (cde & def)) & efg
 *
 * If a string matches the regex, then it must match the logical expression on
 * trigrams.  The opposite is not necessarily true, however: a string that
 * matches the logical expression might not match the original regex.  Such
 * false positives are removed via recheck, by running the regular regex match
 * operator on the retrieved heap tuple.
 *
 * Since the trigram expression involves both AND and OR operators, we can't
 * expect the core index machinery to evaluate it completely.  Instead, the
 * result of regex analysis is a list of trigrams to be sought in the index,
 * plus a simplified graph that is used by trigramsMatchGraph() to determine
 * whether a particular indexed value matches the expression.
 *
 * Converting a regex to a trigram expression is based on analysis of an
 * automaton corresponding to the regex.  The algorithm consists of four
 * stages:
 *
 * 1) Compile the regexp to NFA form.  This is handled by the PostgreSQL
 *    regexp library, which provides accessors for its opaque regex_t struct
 *    to expose the NFA state graph and the "colors" (sets of equivalent
 *    characters) used as state transition labels.
 *
 * 2) Transform the original NFA into an expanded graph, where arcs
 *    are labeled with trigrams that must be present in order to move from
 *    one state to another via the arcs.  The trigrams used in this stage
 *    consist of colors, not characters, as in the original NFA.
 *
 * 3) Expand the color trigrams into regular trigrams consisting of
 *    characters.  If too many distinct trigrams are produced, trigrams are
 *    eliminated and the graph is simplified until it's simple enough.
 *
 * 4) Finally, the resulting graph is packed into a TrgmPackedGraph struct,
 *    and returned to the caller.
 *
 * 1) Compile the regexp to NFA form
 * ---------------------------------
 * The automaton returned by the regexp compiler is a graph where vertices
 * are "states" and arcs are labeled with colors.  Each color represents
 * a set of characters, so that all characters assigned to the same color
 * are interchangeable, so far as matching the regexp is concerned.  There
 * are two special states: "initial" and "final".  A state can have multiple
 * outgoing arcs labeled with the same color, which makes the automaton
 * non-deterministic, because it can be in many states simultaneously.
 *
 * Note that this NFA is already lossy compared to the original regexp,
 * since it ignores some regex features such as lookahead constraints and
 * backref matching.  This is OK for our purposes since it's still the case
 * that only strings matching the NFA can possibly satisfy the regexp.
 *
 * 2) Transform the original NFA into an expanded graph
 * ----------------------------------------------------
 * In the 2nd stage, the automaton is transformed into a graph based on the
 * original NFA.  Each state in the expanded graph represents a state from
 * the original NFA, plus a prefix identifying the last two characters
 * (colors, to be precise) seen before entering the state.  There can be
 * multiple states in the expanded graph for each state in the original NFA,
 * depending on what characters can precede it.  A prefix position can be
 * "unknown" if it's uncertain what the preceding character was, or "blank"
 * if the character was a non-word character (we don't need to distinguish
 * which non-word character it was, so just think of all of them as blanks).
 *
 * For convenience in description, call an expanded-state identifier
 * (two prefix colors plus a state number from the original NFA) an
 * "enter key".
 *
 * Each arc of the expanded graph is labelled with a trigram that must be
 * present in the string to match.  We can construct this from an out-arc of
 * the underlying NFA state by combining the expanded state's prefix with the
 * color label of the underlying out-arc, if neither prefix position is
 * "unknown".  But note that some of the colors in the trigram might be
 * "blank".  This is OK since we want to generate word-boundary trigrams as
 * the regular trigram machinery would, if we know that some word characters
 * must be adjacent to a word boundary in all strings matching the NFA.
 *
 * The expanded graph can also have fewer states than the original NFA,
 * because we don't bother to make a separate state entry unless the state
 * is reachable by a valid arc.  When an enter key is reachable from a state
 * of the expanded graph, but we do not know a complete trigram associated
 * with that transition, we cannot make a valid arc; instead we insert the
 * enter key into the enterKeys list of the source state.  This effectively
 * means that the two expanded states are not reliably distinguishable based
 * on examining trigrams.
 *
 * So the expanded graph resembles the original NFA, but the arcs are
 * labeled with trigrams instead of individual characters, and there may be
 * more or fewer states.  It is a lossy representation of the original NFA:
 * any string that matches the original regexp must match the expanded graph,
 * but the reverse is not true.
 *
 * We build the expanded graph through a breadth-first traversal of states
 * reachable from the initial state.  At each reachable state, we identify the
 * states reachable from it without traversing a predictable trigram, and add
 * those states' enter keys to the current state.  Then we generate all
 * out-arcs leading out of this collection of states that have predictable
 * trigrams, adding their target states to the queue of states to examine.
 *
 * When building the graph, if the number of states or arcs exceed pre-defined
 * limits, we give up and simply mark any states not yet processed as final
 * states.  Roughly speaking, that means that we make use of some portion from
 * the beginning of the regexp.  Also, any colors that have too many member
 * characters are treated as "unknown", so that we can't derive trigrams
 * from them.
 *
 * 3) Expand the color trigrams into regular trigrams
 * --------------------------------------------------
 * The trigrams in the expanded graph are "color trigrams", consisting
 * of three consecutive colors that must be present in the string. But for
 * search, we need regular trigrams consisting of characters. In the 3rd
 * stage, the color trigrams are expanded into regular trigrams. Since each
 * color can represent many characters, the total number of regular trigrams
 * after expansion could be very large. Because searching the index for
 * thousands of trigrams would be slow, and would likely produce so many
 * false positives that we would have to traverse a large fraction of the
 * index, the graph is simplified further in a lossy fashion by removing
 * color trigrams. When a color trigram is removed, the states connected by
 * any arcs labelled with that trigram are merged.
 *
 * Trigrams do not all have equivalent value for searching: some of them are
 * more frequent and some of them are less frequent. Ideally, we would like
 * to know the distribution of trigrams, but we don't. But because of padding
 * we know for sure that the empty character is more frequent than others,
 * so we can penalize trigrams according to presence of whitespace. The
 * penalty assigned to each color trigram is the number of simple trigrams
 * it would produce, times the penalties[] multiplier associated with its
 * whitespace content. (The penalties[] constants were calculated by analysis
 * of some real-life text.) We eliminate color trigrams starting with the
 * highest-penalty one, until we get to a total penalty of no more than
 * WISH_TRGM_PENALTY. However, we cannot remove a color trigram if that would
 * lead to merging the initial and final states, so we may not be able to
 * reach WISH_TRGM_PENALTY. It's still okay so long as we have no more than
 * MAX_TRGM_COUNT simple trigrams in total, otherwise we fail.
 *
 * 4) Pack the graph into a compact representation
 * -----------------------------------------------
 * The 2nd and 3rd stages might have eliminated or merged many of the states
 * and trigrams created earlier, so in this final stage, the graph is
 * compacted and packed into a simpler struct that contains only the
 * information needed to evaluate it.
 *
 * ALGORITHM EXAMPLE:
 *
 * Consider the example regex "ab[cd]".  This regex is transformed into the
 * following NFA (for simplicity we show colors as their single members):
 *
 *                    4#
 *                  c/
 *       a     b    /
 *   1* --- 2 ---- 3
 *                  \
 *                  d\
 *                    5#
 *
 * We use * to mark initial state and # to mark final state. It's not depicted,
 * but states 1, 4, 5 have self-referencing arcs for all possible characters,
 * because this pattern can match to any part of a string.
 *
 * As the result of stage 2 we will have the following graph:
 *
 *        abc    abd
 *   2# <---- 1* ----> 3#
 *
 * The process for generating this graph is:
 * 1) Create state 1 with enter key (UNKNOWN, UNKNOWN, 1).
 * 2) Add key (UNKNOWN, "a", 2) to state 1.
 * 3) Add key ("a", "b", 3) to state 1.
 * 4) Create new state 2 with enter key ("b", "c", 4).  Add an arc
 *    from state 1 to state 2 with label trigram "abc".
 * 5) Mark state 2 final because state 4 of source NFA is marked as final.
 * 6) Create new state 3 with enter key ("b", "d", 5).  Add an arc
 *    from state 1 to state 3 with label trigram "abd".
 * 7) Mark state 3 final because state 5 of source NFA is marked as final.
 *
 *
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2018, PostgreSQL Global Development Group
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California
 *
 * IDENTIFICATION
 *    contrib/pg_trgm/trgm_regexp.c
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
#include "postgres.h"

#include "trgm.h"

#include "regex/regexport.h"
#include "tsearch/ts_locale.h"
#include "utils/hsearch.h"
#include "utils/memutils.h"


/*
 * Uncomment (or use -DTRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG) to print debug info,
 * for exploring and debugging the algorithm implementation.
 * This produces three graph files in /tmp, in Graphviz .dot format.
 * Some progress information is also printed to postmaster stderr.
 */
/* #define TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG */

/*
 * These parameters are used to limit the amount of work done.
 * Otherwise regex processing could be too slow and memory-consuming.
 *
 *  MAX_EXPANDED_STATES - How many states we allow in expanded graph
 *  MAX_EXPANDED_ARCS - How many arcs we allow in expanded graph
 *  MAX_TRGM_COUNT - How many simple trigrams we allow to be extracted
 *  WISH_TRGM_PENALTY - Maximum desired sum of color trigram penalties
 *  COLOR_COUNT_LIMIT - Maximum number of characters per color
 */
#define MAX_EXPANDED_STATES 128
#define MAX_EXPANDED_ARCS   1024
#define MAX_TRGM_COUNT      256
#define WISH_TRGM_PENALTY   16
#define COLOR_COUNT_LIMIT   256

/*
 * Penalty multipliers for trigram counts depending on whitespace contents.
 * Numbers based on analysis of real-life texts.
 */
static const float4 penalties[8] = {
    1.0f,                       /* "aaa" */
    3.5f,                       /* "aa " */
    0.0f,                       /* "a a" (impossible) */
    0.0f,                       /* "a  " (impossible) */
    4.2f,                       /* " aa" */
    2.1f,                       /* " a " */
    25.0f,                      /* "  a" */
    0.0f                        /* "   " (impossible) */
};

/* Struct representing a single pg_wchar, converted back to multibyte form */
typedef struct
{
    char        bytes[MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN];
} trgm_mb_char;

/*
 * Attributes of NFA colors:
 *
 *  expandable              - we know the character expansion of this color
 *  containsNonWord         - color contains non-word characters
 *                            (which will not be extracted into trigrams)
 *  wordCharsCount          - count of word characters in color
 *  wordChars               - array of this color's word characters
 *                            (which can be extracted into trigrams)
 *
 * When expandable is false, the other attributes don't matter; we just
 * assume this color represents unknown character(s).
 */
typedef struct
{
    bool        expandable;
    bool        containsNonWord;
    int         wordCharsCount;
    trgm_mb_char *wordChars;
} TrgmColorInfo;

/*
 * A "prefix" is information about the colors of the last two characters read
 * before reaching a specific NFA state.  These colors can have special values
 * COLOR_UNKNOWN and COLOR_BLANK.  COLOR_UNKNOWN means that we have no
 * information, for example because we read some character of an unexpandable
 * color.  COLOR_BLANK means that we read a non-word character.
 *
 * We call a prefix ambiguous if at least one of its colors is unknown.  It's
 * fully ambiguous if both are unknown, partially ambiguous if only the first
 * is unknown.  (The case of first color known, second unknown is not valid.)
 *
 * Wholly- or partly-blank prefixes are mostly handled the same as regular
 * color prefixes.  This allows us to generate appropriate partly-blank
 * trigrams when the NFA requires word character(s) to appear adjacent to
 * non-word character(s).
 */
typedef int TrgmColor;

/* We assume that colors returned by the regexp engine cannot be these: */
#define COLOR_UNKNOWN   (-1)
#define COLOR_BLANK     (-2)

typedef struct
{
    TrgmColor   colors[2];
} TrgmPrefix;

/*
 * Color-trigram data type.  Note that some elements of the trigram can be
 * COLOR_BLANK, but we don't allow COLOR_UNKNOWN.
 */
typedef struct
{
    TrgmColor   colors[3];
} ColorTrgm;

/*
 * Key identifying a state of our expanded graph: color prefix, and number
 * of the corresponding state in the underlying regex NFA.  The color prefix
 * shows how we reached the regex state (to the extent that we know it).
 */
typedef struct
{
    TrgmPrefix  prefix;
    int         nstate;
} TrgmStateKey;

/*
 * One state of the expanded graph.
 *
 *  stateKey - ID of this state
 *  arcs     - outgoing arcs of this state (List of TrgmArc)
 *  enterKeys - enter keys reachable from this state without reading any
 *             predictable trigram (List of TrgmStateKey)
 *  flags    - flag bits
 *  snumber  - number of this state (initially assigned as -1, -2, etc,
 *             for debugging purposes only; then at the packaging stage,
 *             surviving states are renumbered with positive numbers)
 *  parent   - parent state, if this state has been merged into another
 *  tentFlags - flags this state would acquire via planned merges
 *  tentParent - planned parent state, if considering a merge
 */
#define TSTATE_INIT     0x01    /* flag indicating this state is initial */
#define TSTATE_FIN      0x02    /* flag indicating this state is final */

typedef struct TrgmState
{
    TrgmStateKey stateKey;      /* hashtable key: must be first field */
    List       *arcs;
    List       *enterKeys;
    int         flags;
    int         snumber;
    struct TrgmState *parent;
    int         tentFlags;
    struct TrgmState *tentParent;
} TrgmState;

/*
 * One arc in the expanded graph.
 */
typedef struct
{
    ColorTrgm   ctrgm;          /* trigram needed to traverse arc */
    TrgmState  *target;         /* next state */
} TrgmArc;

/*
 * Information about arc of specific color trigram (used in stage 3)
 *
 * Contains pointers to the source and target states.
 */
typedef struct
{
    TrgmState  *source;
    TrgmState  *target;
} TrgmArcInfo;

/*
 * Information about color trigram (used in stage 3)
 *
 * ctrgm    - trigram itself
 * cnumber  - number of this trigram (used in the packaging stage)
 * count    - number of simple trigrams created from this color trigram
 * expanded - indicates this color trigram is expanded into simple trigrams
 * arcs     - list of all arcs labeled with this color trigram.
 */
typedef struct
{
    ColorTrgm   ctrgm;
    int         cnumber;
    int         count;
    float4      penalty;
    bool        expanded;
    List       *arcs;
} ColorTrgmInfo;

/*
 * Data structure representing all the data we need during regex processing.
 *
 *  regex           - compiled regex
 *  colorInfo       - extracted information about regex's colors
 *  ncolors         - number of colors in colorInfo[]
 *  states          - hashtable of TrgmStates (states of expanded graph)
 *  initState       - pointer to initial state of expanded graph
 *  queue           - queue of to-be-processed TrgmStates
 *  keysQueue       - queue of to-be-processed TrgmStateKeys
 *  arcsCount       - total number of arcs of expanded graph (for resource
 *                    limiting)
 *  overflowed      - we have exceeded resource limit for transformation
 *  colorTrgms      - array of all color trigrams present in graph
 *  colorTrgmsCount - count of those color trigrams
 *  totalTrgmCount  - total count of extracted simple trigrams
 */
typedef struct
{
    /* Source regexp, and color information extracted from it (stage 1) */
    regex_t    *regex;
    TrgmColorInfo *colorInfo;
    int         ncolors;

    /* Expanded graph (stage 2) */
    HTAB       *states;
    TrgmState  *initState;
    int         nstates;

    /* Workspace for stage 2 */
    List       *queue;
    List       *keysQueue;
    int         arcsCount;
    bool        overflowed;

    /* Information about distinct color trigrams in the graph (stage 3) */
    ColorTrgmInfo *colorTrgms;
    int         colorTrgmsCount;
    int         totalTrgmCount;
} TrgmNFA;

/*
 * Final, compact representation of expanded graph.
 */
typedef struct
{
    int         targetState;    /* index of target state (zero-based) */
    int         colorTrgm;      /* index of color trigram for transition */
} TrgmPackedArc;

typedef struct
{
    int         arcsCount;      /* number of out-arcs for this state */
    TrgmPackedArc *arcs;        /* array of arcsCount packed arcs */
} TrgmPackedState;

/* "typedef struct TrgmPackedGraph TrgmPackedGraph" appears in trgm.h */
struct TrgmPackedGraph
{
    /*
     * colorTrigramsCount and colorTrigramsGroups contain information about
     * how trigrams are grouped into color trigrams.  "colorTrigramsCount" is
     * the count of color trigrams and "colorTrigramGroups" contains number of
     * simple trigrams for each color trigram.  The array of simple trigrams
     * (stored separately from this struct) is ordered so that the simple
     * trigrams for each color trigram are consecutive, and they're in order
     * by color trigram number.
     */
    int         colorTrigramsCount;
    int        *colorTrigramGroups; /* array of size colorTrigramsCount */

    /*
     * The states of the simplified NFA.  State number 0 is always initial
     * state and state number 1 is always final state.
     */
    int         statesCount;
    TrgmPackedState *states;    /* array of size statesCount */

    /* Temporary work space for trigramsMatchGraph() */
    bool       *colorTrigramsActive;    /* array of size colorTrigramsCount */
    bool       *statesActive;   /* array of size statesCount */
    int        *statesQueue;    /* array of size statesCount */
};

/*
 * Temporary structure for representing an arc during packaging.
 */
typedef struct
{
    int         sourceState;
    int         targetState;
    int         colorTrgm;
} TrgmPackArcInfo;


/* prototypes for private functions */
static TRGM *createTrgmNFAInternal(regex_t *regex, TrgmPackedGraph **graph,
                      MemoryContext rcontext);
static void RE_compile(regex_t *regex, text *text_re,
           int cflags, Oid collation);
static void getColorInfo(regex_t *regex, TrgmNFA *trgmNFA);
static bool convertPgWchar(pg_wchar c, trgm_mb_char *result);
static void transformGraph(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA);
static void processState(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state);
static void addKey(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state, TrgmStateKey *key);
static void addKeyToQueue(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmStateKey *key);
static void addArcs(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state);
static void addArc(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state, TrgmStateKey *key,
       TrgmColor co, TrgmStateKey *destKey);
static bool validArcLabel(TrgmStateKey *key, TrgmColor co);
static TrgmState *getState(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmStateKey *key);
static bool prefixContains(TrgmPrefix *prefix1, TrgmPrefix *prefix2);
static bool selectColorTrigrams(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA);
static TRGM *expandColorTrigrams(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, MemoryContext rcontext);
static void fillTrgm(trgm *ptrgm, trgm_mb_char s[3]);
static void mergeStates(TrgmState *state1, TrgmState *state2);
static int  colorTrgmInfoCmp(const void *p1, const void *p2);
static int  colorTrgmInfoPenaltyCmp(const void *p1, const void *p2);
static TrgmPackedGraph *packGraph(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, MemoryContext rcontext);
static int  packArcInfoCmp(const void *a1, const void *a2);

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
static void printSourceNFA(regex_t *regex, TrgmColorInfo *colors, int ncolors);
static void printTrgmNFA(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA);
static void printTrgmColor(StringInfo buf, TrgmColor co);
static void printTrgmPackedGraph(TrgmPackedGraph *packedGraph, TRGM *trigrams);
#endif


/*
 * Main entry point to process a regular expression.
 *
 * Returns an array of trigrams required by the regular expression, or NULL if
 * the regular expression was too complex to analyze.  In addition, a packed
 * graph representation of the regex is returned into *graph.  The results
 * must be allocated in rcontext (which might or might not be the current
 * context).
 */
TRGM *
createTrgmNFA(text *text_re, Oid collation,
              TrgmPackedGraph **graph, MemoryContext rcontext)
{
    TRGM       *trg;
    regex_t     regex;
    MemoryContext tmpcontext;
    MemoryContext oldcontext;

    /*
     * This processing generates a great deal of cruft, which we'd like to
     * clean up before returning (since this function may be called in a
     * query-lifespan memory context).  Make a temp context we can work in so
     * that cleanup is easy.
     */
    tmpcontext = AllocSetContextCreate(CurrentMemoryContext,
                                       "createTrgmNFA temporary context",
                                       ALLOCSET_DEFAULT_SIZES);
    oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(tmpcontext);

    /*
     * Stage 1: Compile the regexp into a NFA, using the regexp library.
     */
#ifdef IGNORECASE
    RE_compile(&regex, text_re, REG_ADVANCED | REG_ICASE, collation);
#else
    RE_compile(&regex, text_re, REG_ADVANCED, collation);
#endif

    /*
     * Since the regexp library allocates its internal data structures with
     * malloc, we need to use a PG_TRY block to ensure that pg_regfree() gets
     * done even if there's an error.
     */
    PG_TRY();
    {
        trg = createTrgmNFAInternal(&regex, graph, rcontext);
    }
    PG_CATCH();
    {
        pg_regfree(&regex);
        PG_RE_THROW();
    }
    PG_END_TRY();

    pg_regfree(&regex);

    /* Clean up all the cruft we created */
    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
    MemoryContextDelete(tmpcontext);

    return trg;
}

/*
 * Body of createTrgmNFA, exclusive of regex compilation/freeing.
 */
static TRGM *
createTrgmNFAInternal(regex_t *regex, TrgmPackedGraph **graph,
                      MemoryContext rcontext)
{
    TRGM       *trg;
    TrgmNFA     trgmNFA;

    trgmNFA.regex = regex;

    /* Collect color information from the regex */
    getColorInfo(regex, &trgmNFA);

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
    printSourceNFA(regex, trgmNFA.colorInfo, trgmNFA.ncolors);
#endif

    /*
     * Stage 2: Create an expanded graph from the source NFA.
     */
    transformGraph(&trgmNFA);

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
    printTrgmNFA(&trgmNFA);
#endif

    /*
     * Fail if we were unable to make a nontrivial graph, ie it is possible to
     * get from the initial state to the final state without reading any
     * predictable trigram.
     */
    if (trgmNFA.initState->flags & TSTATE_FIN)
        return NULL;

    /*
     * Stage 3: Select color trigrams to expand.  Fail if too many trigrams.
     */
    if (!selectColorTrigrams(&trgmNFA))
        return NULL;

    /*
     * Stage 4: Expand color trigrams and pack graph into final
     * representation.
     */
    trg = expandColorTrigrams(&trgmNFA, rcontext);

    *graph = packGraph(&trgmNFA, rcontext);

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
    printTrgmPackedGraph(*graph, trg);
#endif

    return trg;
}

/*
 * Main entry point for evaluating a graph during index scanning.
 *
 * The check[] array is indexed by trigram number (in the array of simple
 * trigrams returned by createTrgmNFA), and holds true for those trigrams
 * that are present in the index entry being checked.
 */
bool
trigramsMatchGraph(TrgmPackedGraph *graph, bool *check)
{
    int         i,
                j,
                k,
                queueIn,
                queueOut;

    /*
     * Reset temporary working areas.
     */
    memset(graph->colorTrigramsActive, 0,
           sizeof(bool) * graph->colorTrigramsCount);
    memset(graph->statesActive, 0, sizeof(bool) * graph->statesCount);

    /*
     * Check which color trigrams were matched.  A match for any simple
     * trigram associated with a color trigram counts as a match of the color
     * trigram.
     */
    j = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < graph->colorTrigramsCount; i++)
    {
        int         cnt = graph->colorTrigramGroups[i];

        for (k = j; k < j + cnt; k++)
        {
            if (check[k])
            {
                /*
                 * Found one matched trigram in the group. Can skip the rest
                 * of them and go to the next group.
                 */
                graph->colorTrigramsActive[i] = true;
                break;
            }
        }
        j = j + cnt;
    }

    /*
     * Initialize the statesQueue to hold just the initial state.  Note:
     * statesQueue has room for statesCount entries, which is certainly enough
     * since no state will be put in the queue more than once. The
     * statesActive array marks which states have been queued.
     */
    graph->statesActive[0] = true;
    graph->statesQueue[0] = 0;
    queueIn = 0;
    queueOut = 1;

    /* Process queued states as long as there are any. */
    while (queueIn < queueOut)
    {
        int         stateno = graph->statesQueue[queueIn++];
        TrgmPackedState *state = &graph->states[stateno];
        int         cnt = state->arcsCount;

        /* Loop over state's out-arcs */
        for (i = 0; i < cnt; i++)
        {
            TrgmPackedArc *arc = &state->arcs[i];

            /*
             * If corresponding color trigram is present then activate the
             * corresponding state.  We're done if that's the final state,
             * otherwise queue the state if it's not been queued already.
             */
            if (graph->colorTrigramsActive[arc->colorTrgm])
            {
                int         nextstate = arc->targetState;

                if (nextstate == 1)
                    return true;    /* success: final state is reachable */

                if (!graph->statesActive[nextstate])
                {
                    graph->statesActive[nextstate] = true;
                    graph->statesQueue[queueOut++] = nextstate;
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /* Queue is empty, so match fails. */
    return false;
}

/*
 * Compile regex string into struct at *regex.
 * NB: pg_regfree must be applied to regex if this completes successfully.
 */
static void
RE_compile(regex_t *regex, text *text_re, int cflags, Oid collation)
{
    int         text_re_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(text_re);
    char       *text_re_val = VARDATA_ANY(text_re);
    pg_wchar   *pattern;
    int         pattern_len;
    int         regcomp_result;
    char        errMsg[100];

    /* Convert pattern string to wide characters */
    pattern = (pg_wchar *) palloc((text_re_len + 1) * sizeof(pg_wchar));
    pattern_len = pg_mb2wchar_with_len(text_re_val,
                                       pattern,
                                       text_re_len);

    /* Compile regex */
    regcomp_result = pg_regcomp(regex,
                                pattern,
                                pattern_len,
                                cflags,
                                collation);

    pfree(pattern);

    if (regcomp_result != REG_OKAY)
    {
        /* re didn't compile (no need for pg_regfree, if so) */
        pg_regerror(regcomp_result, regex, errMsg, sizeof(errMsg));
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_REGULAR_EXPRESSION),
                 errmsg("invalid regular expression: %s", errMsg)));
    }
}


/*---------------------
 * Subroutines for pre-processing the color map (stage 1).
 *---------------------
 */

/*
 * Fill TrgmColorInfo structure for each color using regex export functions.
 */
static void
getColorInfo(regex_t *regex, TrgmNFA *trgmNFA)
{
    int         colorsCount = pg_reg_getnumcolors(regex);
    int         i;

    trgmNFA->ncolors = colorsCount;
    trgmNFA->colorInfo = (TrgmColorInfo *)
        palloc0(colorsCount * sizeof(TrgmColorInfo));

    /*
     * Loop over colors, filling TrgmColorInfo about each.
     */
    for (i = 0; i < colorsCount; i++)
    {
        TrgmColorInfo *colorInfo = &trgmNFA->colorInfo[i];
        int         charsCount = pg_reg_getnumcharacters(regex, i);
        pg_wchar   *chars;
        int         j;

        if (charsCount < 0 || charsCount > COLOR_COUNT_LIMIT)
        {
            /* Non expandable, or too large to work with */
            colorInfo->expandable = false;
            continue;
        }

        colorInfo->expandable = true;
        colorInfo->containsNonWord = false;
        colorInfo->wordChars = (trgm_mb_char *)
            palloc(sizeof(trgm_mb_char) * charsCount);
        colorInfo->wordCharsCount = 0;

        /* Extract all the chars in this color */
        chars = (pg_wchar *) palloc(sizeof(pg_wchar) * charsCount);
        pg_reg_getcharacters(regex, i, chars, charsCount);

        /*
         * Convert characters back to multibyte form, and save only those that
         * are word characters.  Set "containsNonWord" if any non-word
         * character.  (Note: it'd probably be nicer to keep the chars in
         * pg_wchar format for now, but ISWORDCHR wants to see multibyte.)
         */
        for (j = 0; j < charsCount; j++)
        {
            trgm_mb_char c;

            if (!convertPgWchar(chars[j], &c))
                continue;       /* ok to ignore it altogether */
            if (ISWORDCHR(c.bytes))
                colorInfo->wordChars[colorInfo->wordCharsCount++] = c;
            else
                colorInfo->containsNonWord = true;
        }

        pfree(chars);
    }
}

/*
 * Convert pg_wchar to multibyte format.
 * Returns false if the character should be ignored completely.
 */
static bool
convertPgWchar(pg_wchar c, trgm_mb_char *result)
{
    /* "s" has enough space for a multibyte character and a trailing NUL */
    char        s[MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN + 1];

    /*
     * We can ignore the NUL character, since it can never appear in a PG text
     * string.  This avoids the need for various special cases when
     * reconstructing trigrams.
     */
    if (c == 0)
        return false;

    /* Do the conversion, making sure the result is NUL-terminated */
    memset(s, 0, sizeof(s));
    pg_wchar2mb_with_len(&c, s, 1);

    /*
     * In IGNORECASE mode, we can ignore uppercase characters.  We assume that
     * the regex engine generated both uppercase and lowercase equivalents
     * within each color, since we used the REG_ICASE option; so there's no
     * need to process the uppercase version.
     *
     * XXX this code is dependent on the assumption that lowerstr() works the
     * same as the regex engine's internal case folding machinery.  Might be
     * wiser to expose pg_wc_tolower and test whether c == pg_wc_tolower(c).
     * On the other hand, the trigrams in the index were created using
     * lowerstr(), so we're probably screwed if there's any incompatibility
     * anyway.
     */
#ifdef IGNORECASE
    {
        char       *lowerCased = lowerstr(s);

        if (strcmp(lowerCased, s) != 0)
        {
            pfree(lowerCased);
            return false;
        }
        pfree(lowerCased);
    }
#endif

    /* Fill result with exactly MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN bytes */
    memcpy(result->bytes, s, MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN);
    return true;
}


/*---------------------
 * Subroutines for expanding original NFA graph into a trigram graph (stage 2).
 *---------------------
 */

/*
 * Transform the graph, given a regex and extracted color information.
 *
 * We create and process a queue of expanded-graph states until all the states
 * are processed.
 *
 * This algorithm may be stopped due to resource limitation. In this case we
 * force every unprocessed branch to immediately finish with matching (this
 * can give us false positives but no false negatives) by marking all
 * unprocessed states as final.
 */
static void
transformGraph(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA)
{
    HASHCTL     hashCtl;
    TrgmStateKey initkey;
    TrgmState  *initstate;

    /* Initialize this stage's workspace in trgmNFA struct */
    trgmNFA->queue = NIL;
    trgmNFA->keysQueue = NIL;
    trgmNFA->arcsCount = 0;
    trgmNFA->overflowed = false;

    /* Create hashtable for states */
    hashCtl.keysize = sizeof(TrgmStateKey);
    hashCtl.entrysize = sizeof(TrgmState);
    hashCtl.hcxt = CurrentMemoryContext;
    trgmNFA->states = hash_create("Trigram NFA",
                                  1024,
                                  &hashCtl,
                                  HASH_ELEM | HASH_BLOBS | HASH_CONTEXT);
    trgmNFA->nstates = 0;

    /* Create initial state: ambiguous prefix, NFA's initial state */
    MemSet(&initkey, 0, sizeof(initkey));
    initkey.prefix.colors[0] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
    initkey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
    initkey.nstate = pg_reg_getinitialstate(trgmNFA->regex);

    initstate = getState(trgmNFA, &initkey);
    initstate->flags |= TSTATE_INIT;
    trgmNFA->initState = initstate;

    /*
     * Recursively build the expanded graph by processing queue of states
     * (breadth-first search).  getState already put initstate in the queue.
     */
    while (trgmNFA->queue != NIL)
    {
        TrgmState  *state = (TrgmState *) linitial(trgmNFA->queue);

        trgmNFA->queue = list_delete_first(trgmNFA->queue);

        /*
         * If we overflowed then just mark state as final.  Otherwise do
         * actual processing.
         */
        if (trgmNFA->overflowed)
            state->flags |= TSTATE_FIN;
        else
            processState(trgmNFA, state);

        /* Did we overflow? */
        if (trgmNFA->arcsCount > MAX_EXPANDED_ARCS ||
            hash_get_num_entries(trgmNFA->states) > MAX_EXPANDED_STATES)
            trgmNFA->overflowed = true;
    }
}

/*
 * Process one state: add enter keys and then add outgoing arcs.
 */
static void
processState(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state)
{
    /* keysQueue should be NIL already, but make sure */
    trgmNFA->keysQueue = NIL;

    /*
     * Add state's own key, and then process all keys added to keysQueue until
     * queue is empty.  But we can quit if the state gets marked final.
     */
    addKey(trgmNFA, state, &state->stateKey);
    while (trgmNFA->keysQueue != NIL && !(state->flags & TSTATE_FIN))
    {
        TrgmStateKey *key = (TrgmStateKey *) linitial(trgmNFA->keysQueue);

        trgmNFA->keysQueue = list_delete_first(trgmNFA->keysQueue);
        addKey(trgmNFA, state, key);
    }

    /*
     * Add outgoing arcs only if state isn't final (we have no interest in
     * outgoing arcs if we already match)
     */
    if (!(state->flags & TSTATE_FIN))
        addArcs(trgmNFA, state);
}

/*
 * Add the given enter key into the state's enterKeys list, and determine
 * whether this should result in any further enter keys being added.
 * If so, add those keys to keysQueue so that processState will handle them.
 *
 * If the enter key is for the NFA's final state, mark state as TSTATE_FIN.
 * This situation means that we can reach the final state from this expanded
 * state without reading any predictable trigram, so we must consider this
 * state as an accepting one.
 *
 * The given key could be a duplicate of one already in enterKeys, or be
 * redundant with some enterKeys.  So we check that before doing anything.
 *
 * Note that we don't generate any actual arcs here.  addArcs will do that
 * later, after we have identified all the enter keys for this state.
 */
static void
addKey(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state, TrgmStateKey *key)
{
    regex_arc_t *arcs;
    TrgmStateKey destKey;
    ListCell   *cell,
               *prev,
               *next;
    int         i,
                arcsCount;

    /*
     * Ensure any pad bytes in destKey are zero, since it may get used as a
     * hashtable key by getState.
     */
    MemSet(&destKey, 0, sizeof(destKey));

    /*
     * Compare key to each existing enter key of the state to check for
     * redundancy.  We can drop either old key(s) or the new key if we find
     * redundancy.
     */
    prev = NULL;
    cell = list_head(state->enterKeys);
    while (cell)
    {
        TrgmStateKey *existingKey = (TrgmStateKey *) lfirst(cell);

        next = lnext(cell);
        if (existingKey->nstate == key->nstate)
        {
            if (prefixContains(&existingKey->prefix, &key->prefix))
            {
                /* This old key already covers the new key. Nothing to do */
                return;
            }
            if (prefixContains(&key->prefix, &existingKey->prefix))
            {
                /*
                 * The new key covers this old key. Remove the old key, it's
                 * no longer needed once we add this key to the list.
                 */
                state->enterKeys = list_delete_cell(state->enterKeys,
                                                    cell, prev);
            }
            else
                prev = cell;
        }
        else
            prev = cell;
        cell = next;
    }

    /* No redundancy, so add this key to the state's list */
    state->enterKeys = lappend(state->enterKeys, key);

    /* If state is now known final, mark it and we're done */
    if (key->nstate == pg_reg_getfinalstate(trgmNFA->regex))
    {
        state->flags |= TSTATE_FIN;
        return;
    }

    /*
     * Loop through all outgoing arcs of the corresponding state in the
     * original NFA.
     */
    arcsCount = pg_reg_getnumoutarcs(trgmNFA->regex, key->nstate);
    arcs = (regex_arc_t *) palloc(sizeof(regex_arc_t) * arcsCount);
    pg_reg_getoutarcs(trgmNFA->regex, key->nstate, arcs, arcsCount);

    for (i = 0; i < arcsCount; i++)
    {
        regex_arc_t *arc = &arcs[i];

        if (pg_reg_colorisbegin(trgmNFA->regex, arc->co))
        {
            /*
             * Start of line/string (^).  Trigram extraction treats start of
             * line same as start of word: double space prefix is added.
             * Hence, make an enter key showing we can reach the arc
             * destination with all-blank prefix.
             */
            destKey.prefix.colors[0] = COLOR_BLANK;
            destKey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_BLANK;
            destKey.nstate = arc->to;

            /* Add enter key to this state */
            addKeyToQueue(trgmNFA, &destKey);
        }
        else if (pg_reg_colorisend(trgmNFA->regex, arc->co))
        {
            /*
             * End of line/string ($).  We must consider this arc as a
             * transition that doesn't read anything.  The reason for adding
             * this enter key to the state is that if the arc leads to the
             * NFA's final state, we must mark this expanded state as final.
             */
            destKey.prefix.colors[0] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
            destKey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
            destKey.nstate = arc->to;

            /* Add enter key to this state */
            addKeyToQueue(trgmNFA, &destKey);
        }
        else
        {
            /* Regular color */
            TrgmColorInfo *colorInfo = &trgmNFA->colorInfo[arc->co];

            if (colorInfo->expandable)
            {
                if (colorInfo->containsNonWord &&
                    !validArcLabel(key, COLOR_BLANK))
                {
                    /*
                     * We can reach the arc destination after reading a
                     * non-word character, but the prefix is not something
                     * that addArc will accept with COLOR_BLANK, so no trigram
                     * arc can get made for this transition.  We must make an
                     * enter key to show that the arc destination is
                     * reachable.  Set it up with an all-blank prefix, since
                     * that corresponds to what the trigram extraction code
                     * will do at a word starting boundary.
                     */
                    destKey.prefix.colors[0] = COLOR_BLANK;
                    destKey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_BLANK;
                    destKey.nstate = arc->to;
                    addKeyToQueue(trgmNFA, &destKey);
                }

                if (colorInfo->wordCharsCount > 0 &&
                    !validArcLabel(key, arc->co))
                {
                    /*
                     * We can reach the arc destination after reading a word
                     * character, but the prefix is not something that addArc
                     * will accept, so no trigram arc can get made for this
                     * transition.  We must make an enter key to show that the
                     * arc destination is reachable.  The prefix for the enter
                     * key should reflect the info we have for this arc.
                     */
                    destKey.prefix.colors[0] = key->prefix.colors[1];
                    destKey.prefix.colors[1] = arc->co;
                    destKey.nstate = arc->to;
                    addKeyToQueue(trgmNFA, &destKey);
                }
            }
            else
            {
                /*
                 * Unexpandable color.  Add enter key with ambiguous prefix,
                 * showing we can reach the destination from this state, but
                 * the preceding colors will be uncertain.  (We do not set the
                 * first prefix color to key->prefix.colors[1], because a
                 * prefix of known followed by unknown is invalid.)
                 */
                destKey.prefix.colors[0] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
                destKey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_UNKNOWN;
                destKey.nstate = arc->to;
                addKeyToQueue(trgmNFA, &destKey);
            }
        }
    }

    pfree(arcs);
}

/*
 * Add copy of given key to keysQueue for later processing.
 */
static void
addKeyToQueue(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmStateKey *key)
{
    TrgmStateKey *keyCopy = (TrgmStateKey *) palloc(sizeof(TrgmStateKey));

    memcpy(keyCopy, key, sizeof(TrgmStateKey));
    trgmNFA->keysQueue = lappend(trgmNFA->keysQueue, keyCopy);
}

/*
 * Add outgoing arcs from given state, whose enter keys are all now known.
 */
static void
addArcs(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state)
{
    TrgmStateKey destKey;
    ListCell   *cell;
    regex_arc_t *arcs;
    int         arcsCount,
                i;

    /*
     * Ensure any pad bytes in destKey are zero, since it may get used as a
     * hashtable key by getState.
     */
    MemSet(&destKey, 0, sizeof(destKey));

    /*
     * Iterate over enter keys associated with this expanded-graph state. This
     * includes both the state's own stateKey, and any enter keys we added to
     * it during addKey (which represent expanded-graph states that are not
     * distinguishable from this one by means of trigrams).  For each such
     * enter key, examine all the out-arcs of the key's underlying NFA state,
     * and try to make a trigram arc leading to where the out-arc leads.
     * (addArc will deal with whether the arc is valid or not.)
     */
    foreach(cell, state->enterKeys)
    {
        TrgmStateKey *key = (TrgmStateKey *) lfirst(cell);

        arcsCount = pg_reg_getnumoutarcs(trgmNFA->regex, key->nstate);
        arcs = (regex_arc_t *) palloc(sizeof(regex_arc_t) * arcsCount);
        pg_reg_getoutarcs(trgmNFA->regex, key->nstate, arcs, arcsCount);

        for (i = 0; i < arcsCount; i++)
        {
            regex_arc_t *arc = &arcs[i];
            TrgmColorInfo *colorInfo = &trgmNFA->colorInfo[arc->co];

            /*
             * Ignore non-expandable colors; addKey already handled the case.
             *
             * We need no special check for begin/end pseudocolors here.  We
             * don't need to do any processing for them, and they will be
             * marked non-expandable since the regex engine will have reported
             * them that way.
             */
            if (!colorInfo->expandable)
                continue;

            if (colorInfo->containsNonWord)
            {
                /*
                 * Color includes non-word character(s).
                 *
                 * Generate an arc, treating this transition as occurring on
                 * BLANK.  This allows word-ending trigrams to be manufactured
                 * if possible.
                 */
                destKey.prefix.colors[0] = key->prefix.colors[1];
                destKey.prefix.colors[1] = COLOR_BLANK;
                destKey.nstate = arc->to;

                addArc(trgmNFA, state, key, COLOR_BLANK, &destKey);
            }

            if (colorInfo->wordCharsCount > 0)
            {
                /*
                 * Color includes word character(s).
                 *
                 * Generate an arc.  Color is pushed into prefix of target
                 * state.
                 */
                destKey.prefix.colors[0] = key->prefix.colors[1];
                destKey.prefix.colors[1] = arc->co;
                destKey.nstate = arc->to;

                addArc(trgmNFA, state, key, arc->co, &destKey);
            }
        }

        pfree(arcs);
    }
}

/*
 * Generate an out-arc of the expanded graph, if it's valid and not redundant.
 *
 * state: expanded-graph state we want to add an out-arc to
 * key: provides prefix colors (key->nstate is not used)
 * co: transition color
 * destKey: identifier for destination state of expanded graph
 */
static void
addArc(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmState *state, TrgmStateKey *key,
       TrgmColor co, TrgmStateKey *destKey)
{
    TrgmArc    *arc;
    ListCell   *cell;

    /* Do nothing if this wouldn't be a valid arc label trigram */
    if (!validArcLabel(key, co))
        return;

    /*
     * Check if we are going to reach key which is covered by a key which is
     * already listed in this state.  If so arc is useless: the NFA can bypass
     * it through a path that doesn't require any predictable trigram, so
     * whether the arc's trigram is present or not doesn't really matter.
     */
    foreach(cell, state->enterKeys)
    {
        TrgmStateKey *existingKey = (TrgmStateKey *) lfirst(cell);

        if (existingKey->nstate == destKey->nstate &&
            prefixContains(&existingKey->prefix, &destKey->prefix))
            return;
    }

    /* Checks were successful, add new arc */
    arc = (TrgmArc *) palloc(sizeof(TrgmArc));
    arc->target = getState(trgmNFA, destKey);
    arc->ctrgm.colors[0] = key->prefix.colors[0];
    arc->ctrgm.colors[1] = key->prefix.colors[1];
    arc->ctrgm.colors[2] = co;

    state->arcs = lappend(state->arcs, arc);
    trgmNFA->arcsCount++;
}

/*
 * Can we make a valid trigram arc label from the given prefix and arc color?
 *
 * This is split out so that tests in addKey and addArc will stay in sync.
 */
static bool
validArcLabel(TrgmStateKey *key, TrgmColor co)
{
    /*
     * We have to know full trigram in order to add outgoing arc.  So we can't
     * do it if prefix is ambiguous.
     */
    if (key->prefix.colors[0] == COLOR_UNKNOWN)
        return false;

    /* If key->prefix.colors[0] isn't unknown, its second color isn't either */
    Assert(key->prefix.colors[1] != COLOR_UNKNOWN);
    /* And we should not be called with an unknown arc color anytime */
    Assert(co != COLOR_UNKNOWN);

    /*
     * We don't bother with making arcs representing three non-word
     * characters, since that's useless for trigram extraction.
     */
    if (key->prefix.colors[0] == COLOR_BLANK &&
        key->prefix.colors[1] == COLOR_BLANK &&
        co == COLOR_BLANK)
        return false;

    /*
     * We also reject nonblank-blank-anything.  The nonblank-blank-nonblank
     * case doesn't correspond to any trigram the trigram extraction code
     * would make.  The nonblank-blank-blank case is also not possible with
     * RPADDING = 1.  (Note that in many cases we'd fail to generate such a
     * trigram even if it were valid, for example processing "foo bar" will
     * not result in considering the trigram "o  ".  So if you want to support
     * RPADDING = 2, there's more to do than just twiddle this test.)
     */
    if (key->prefix.colors[0] != COLOR_BLANK &&
        key->prefix.colors[1] == COLOR_BLANK)
        return false;

    /*
     * Other combinations involving blank are valid, in particular we assume
     * blank-blank-nonblank is valid, which presumes that LPADDING is 2.
     *
     * Note: Using again the example "foo bar", we will not consider the
     * trigram "  b", though this trigram would be found by the trigram
     * extraction code.  Since we will find " ba", it doesn't seem worth
     * trying to hack the algorithm to generate the additional trigram.
     */

    /* arc label is valid */
    return true;
}

/*
 * Get state of expanded graph for given state key,
 * and queue the state for processing if it didn't already exist.
 */
static TrgmState *
getState(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, TrgmStateKey *key)
{
    TrgmState  *state;
    bool        found;

    state = (TrgmState *) hash_search(trgmNFA->states, key, HASH_ENTER,
                                      &found);
    if (!found)
    {
        /* New state: initialize and queue it */
        state->arcs = NIL;
        state->enterKeys = NIL;
        state->flags = 0;
        /* states are initially given negative numbers */
        state->snumber = -(++trgmNFA->nstates);
        state->parent = NULL;
        state->tentFlags = 0;
        state->tentParent = NULL;

        trgmNFA->queue = lappend(trgmNFA->queue, state);
    }
    return state;
}

/*
 * Check if prefix1 "contains" prefix2.
 *
 * "contains" means that any exact prefix (with no ambiguity) that satisfies
 * prefix2 also satisfies prefix1.
 */
static bool
prefixContains(TrgmPrefix *prefix1, TrgmPrefix *prefix2)
{
    if (prefix1->colors[1] == COLOR_UNKNOWN)
    {
        /* Fully ambiguous prefix contains everything */
        return true;
    }
    else if (prefix1->colors[0] == COLOR_UNKNOWN)
    {
        /*
         * Prefix with only first unknown color contains every prefix with
         * same second color.
         */
        if (prefix1->colors[1] == prefix2->colors[1])
            return true;
        else
            return false;
    }
    else
    {
        /* Exact prefix contains only the exact same prefix */
        if (prefix1->colors[0] == prefix2->colors[0] &&
            prefix1->colors[1] == prefix2->colors[1])
            return true;
        else
            return false;
    }
}


/*---------------------
 * Subroutines for expanding color trigrams into regular trigrams (stage 3).
 *---------------------
 */

/*
 * Get vector of all color trigrams in graph and select which of them
 * to expand into simple trigrams.
 *
 * Returns true if OK, false if exhausted resource limits.
 */
static bool
selectColorTrigrams(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA)
{
    HASH_SEQ_STATUS scan_status;
    int         arcsCount = trgmNFA->arcsCount,
                i;
    TrgmState  *state;
    ColorTrgmInfo *colorTrgms;
    int64       totalTrgmCount;
    float4      totalTrgmPenalty;
    int         cnumber;

    /* Collect color trigrams from all arcs */
    colorTrgms = (ColorTrgmInfo *) palloc0(sizeof(ColorTrgmInfo) * arcsCount);
    trgmNFA->colorTrgms = colorTrgms;

    i = 0;
    hash_seq_init(&scan_status, trgmNFA->states);
    while ((state = (TrgmState *) hash_seq_search(&scan_status)) != NULL)
    {
        ListCell   *cell;

        foreach(cell, state->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArc    *arc = (TrgmArc *) lfirst(cell);
            TrgmArcInfo *arcInfo = (TrgmArcInfo *) palloc(sizeof(TrgmArcInfo));
            ColorTrgmInfo *trgmInfo = &colorTrgms[i];

            arcInfo->source = state;
            arcInfo->target = arc->target;
            trgmInfo->ctrgm = arc->ctrgm;
            trgmInfo->cnumber = -1;
            /* count and penalty will be set below */
            trgmInfo->expanded = true;
            trgmInfo->arcs = list_make1(arcInfo);
            i++;
        }
    }
    Assert(i == arcsCount);

    /* Remove duplicates, merging their arcs lists */
    if (arcsCount >= 2)
    {
        ColorTrgmInfo *p1,
                   *p2;

        /* Sort trigrams to ease duplicate detection */
        qsort(colorTrgms, arcsCount, sizeof(ColorTrgmInfo), colorTrgmInfoCmp);

        /* p1 is probe point, p2 is last known non-duplicate. */
        p2 = colorTrgms;
        for (p1 = colorTrgms + 1; p1 < colorTrgms + arcsCount; p1++)
        {
            if (colorTrgmInfoCmp(p1, p2) > 0)
            {
                p2++;
                *p2 = *p1;
            }
            else
            {
                p2->arcs = list_concat(p2->arcs, p1->arcs);
            }
        }
        trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount = (p2 - colorTrgms) + 1;
    }
    else
    {
        trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount = arcsCount;
    }

    /*
     * Count number of simple trigrams generated by each color trigram, and
     * also compute a penalty value, which is the number of simple trigrams
     * times a multiplier that depends on its whitespace content.
     *
     * Note: per-color-trigram counts cannot overflow an int so long as
     * COLOR_COUNT_LIMIT is not more than the cube root of INT_MAX, ie about
     * 1290.  However, the grand total totalTrgmCount might conceivably
     * overflow an int, so we use int64 for that within this routine.  Also,
     * penalties are calculated in float4 arithmetic to avoid any overflow
     * worries.
     */
    totalTrgmCount = 0;
    totalTrgmPenalty = 0.0f;
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        ColorTrgmInfo *trgmInfo = &colorTrgms[i];
        int         j,
                    count = 1,
                    typeIndex = 0;

        for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
        {
            TrgmColor   c = trgmInfo->ctrgm.colors[j];

            typeIndex *= 2;
            if (c == COLOR_BLANK)
                typeIndex++;
            else
                count *= trgmNFA->colorInfo[c].wordCharsCount;
        }
        trgmInfo->count = count;
        totalTrgmCount += count;
        trgmInfo->penalty = penalties[typeIndex] * (float4) count;
        totalTrgmPenalty += trgmInfo->penalty;
    }

    /* Sort color trigrams in descending order of their penalties */
    qsort(colorTrgms, trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount, sizeof(ColorTrgmInfo),
          colorTrgmInfoPenaltyCmp);

    /*
     * Remove color trigrams from the graph so long as total penalty of color
     * trigrams exceeds WISH_TRGM_PENALTY.  (If we fail to get down to
     * WISH_TRGM_PENALTY, it's OK so long as total count is no more than
     * MAX_TRGM_COUNT.)  We prefer to remove color trigrams with higher
     * penalty, since those are the most promising for reducing the total
     * penalty.  When removing a color trigram we have to merge states
     * connected by arcs labeled with that trigram.  It's necessary to not
     * merge initial and final states, because our graph becomes useless if
     * that happens; so we cannot always remove the trigram we'd prefer to.
     */
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        ColorTrgmInfo *trgmInfo = &colorTrgms[i];
        bool        canRemove = true;
        ListCell   *cell;

        /* Done if we've reached the target */
        if (totalTrgmPenalty <= WISH_TRGM_PENALTY)
            break;

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
        fprintf(stderr, "considering ctrgm %d %d %d, penalty %f, %d arcs\n",
                trgmInfo->ctrgm.colors[0],
                trgmInfo->ctrgm.colors[1],
                trgmInfo->ctrgm.colors[2],
                trgmInfo->penalty,
                list_length(trgmInfo->arcs));
#endif

        /*
         * Does any arc of this color trigram connect initial and final
         * states?  If so we can't remove it.
         */
        foreach(cell, trgmInfo->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArcInfo *arcInfo = (TrgmArcInfo *) lfirst(cell);
            TrgmState  *source = arcInfo->source,
                       *target = arcInfo->target;
            int         source_flags,
                        target_flags;

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
            fprintf(stderr, "examining arc to s%d (%x) from s%d (%x)\n",
                    -target->snumber, target->flags,
                    -source->snumber, source->flags);
#endif

            /* examine parent states, if any merging has already happened */
            while (source->parent)
                source = source->parent;
            while (target->parent)
                target = target->parent;

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
            fprintf(stderr, " ... after completed merges: to s%d (%x) from s%d (%x)\n",
                    -target->snumber, target->flags,
                    -source->snumber, source->flags);
#endif

            /* we must also consider merges we are planning right now */
            source_flags = source->flags | source->tentFlags;
            while (source->tentParent)
            {
                source = source->tentParent;
                source_flags |= source->flags | source->tentFlags;
            }
            target_flags = target->flags | target->tentFlags;
            while (target->tentParent)
            {
                target = target->tentParent;
                target_flags |= target->flags | target->tentFlags;
            }

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
            fprintf(stderr, " ... after tentative merges: to s%d (%x) from s%d (%x)\n",
                    -target->snumber, target_flags,
                    -source->snumber, source_flags);
#endif

            /* would fully-merged state have both INIT and FIN set? */
            if (((source_flags | target_flags) & (TSTATE_INIT | TSTATE_FIN)) ==
                (TSTATE_INIT | TSTATE_FIN))
            {
                canRemove = false;
                break;
            }

            /* ok so far, so remember planned merge */
            if (source != target)
            {
#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
                fprintf(stderr, " ... tentatively merging s%d into s%d\n",
                        -target->snumber, -source->snumber);
#endif
                target->tentParent = source;
                source->tentFlags |= target_flags;
            }
        }

        /*
         * We must reset all the tentFlags/tentParent fields before
         * continuing.  tentFlags could only have become set in states that
         * are the source or parent or tentative parent of one of the current
         * arcs; likewise tentParent could only have become set in states that
         * are the target or parent or tentative parent of one of the current
         * arcs.  There might be some overlap between those sets, but if we
         * clear tentFlags in target states as well as source states, we
         * should be okay even if we visit a state as target before visiting
         * it as a source.
         */
        foreach(cell, trgmInfo->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArcInfo *arcInfo = (TrgmArcInfo *) lfirst(cell);
            TrgmState  *source = arcInfo->source,
                       *target = arcInfo->target;
            TrgmState  *ttarget;

            /* no need to touch previously-merged states */
            while (source->parent)
                source = source->parent;
            while (target->parent)
                target = target->parent;

            while (source)
            {
                source->tentFlags = 0;
                source = source->tentParent;
            }

            while ((ttarget = target->tentParent) != NULL)
            {
                target->tentParent = NULL;
                target->tentFlags = 0;  /* in case it was also a source */
                target = ttarget;
            }
        }

        /* Now, move on if we can't drop this trigram */
        if (!canRemove)
        {
#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
            fprintf(stderr, " ... not ok to merge\n");
#endif
            continue;
        }

        /* OK, merge states linked by each arc labeled by the trigram */
        foreach(cell, trgmInfo->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArcInfo *arcInfo = (TrgmArcInfo *) lfirst(cell);
            TrgmState  *source = arcInfo->source,
                       *target = arcInfo->target;

            while (source->parent)
                source = source->parent;
            while (target->parent)
                target = target->parent;
            if (source != target)
            {
#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG
                fprintf(stderr, "merging s%d into s%d\n",
                        -target->snumber, -source->snumber);
#endif
                mergeStates(source, target);
                /* Assert we didn't merge initial and final states */
                Assert((source->flags & (TSTATE_INIT | TSTATE_FIN)) !=
                       (TSTATE_INIT | TSTATE_FIN));
            }
        }

        /* Mark trigram unexpanded, and update totals */
        trgmInfo->expanded = false;
        totalTrgmCount -= trgmInfo->count;
        totalTrgmPenalty -= trgmInfo->penalty;
    }

    /* Did we succeed in fitting into MAX_TRGM_COUNT? */
    if (totalTrgmCount > MAX_TRGM_COUNT)
        return false;

    trgmNFA->totalTrgmCount = (int) totalTrgmCount;

    /*
     * Sort color trigrams by colors (will be useful for bsearch in packGraph)
     * and enumerate the color trigrams that are expanded.
     */
    cnumber = 0;
    qsort(colorTrgms, trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount, sizeof(ColorTrgmInfo),
          colorTrgmInfoCmp);
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        if (colorTrgms[i].expanded)
        {
            colorTrgms[i].cnumber = cnumber;
            cnumber++;
        }
    }

    return true;
}

/*
 * Expand selected color trigrams into regular trigrams.
 *
 * Returns the TRGM array to be passed to the index machinery.
 * The array must be allocated in rcontext.
 */
static TRGM *
expandColorTrigrams(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, MemoryContext rcontext)
{
    TRGM       *trg;
    trgm       *p;
    int         i;
    TrgmColorInfo blankColor;
    trgm_mb_char blankChar;

    /* Set up "blank" color structure containing a single zero character */
    memset(blankChar.bytes, 0, sizeof(blankChar.bytes));
    blankColor.wordCharsCount = 1;
    blankColor.wordChars = &blankChar;

    /* Construct the trgm array */
    trg = (TRGM *)
        MemoryContextAllocZero(rcontext,
                               TRGMHDRSIZE +
                               trgmNFA->totalTrgmCount * sizeof(trgm));
    trg->flag = ARRKEY;
    SET_VARSIZE(trg, CALCGTSIZE(ARRKEY, trgmNFA->totalTrgmCount));
    p = GETARR(trg);
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        ColorTrgmInfo *colorTrgm = &trgmNFA->colorTrgms[i];
        TrgmColorInfo *c[3];
        trgm_mb_char s[3];
        int         j,
                    i1,
                    i2,
                    i3;

        /* Ignore any unexpanded trigrams ... */
        if (!colorTrgm->expanded)
            continue;

        /* Get colors, substituting the dummy struct for COLOR_BLANK */
        for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
        {
            if (colorTrgm->ctrgm.colors[j] != COLOR_BLANK)
                c[j] = &trgmNFA->colorInfo[colorTrgm->ctrgm.colors[j]];
            else
                c[j] = &blankColor;
        }

        /* Iterate over all possible combinations of colors' characters */
        for (i1 = 0; i1 < c[0]->wordCharsCount; i1++)
        {
            s[0] = c[0]->wordChars[i1];
            for (i2 = 0; i2 < c[1]->wordCharsCount; i2++)
            {
                s[1] = c[1]->wordChars[i2];
                for (i3 = 0; i3 < c[2]->wordCharsCount; i3++)
                {
                    s[2] = c[2]->wordChars[i3];
                    fillTrgm(p, s);
                    p++;
                }
            }
        }
    }

    return trg;
}

/*
 * Convert trigram into trgm datatype.
 */
static void
fillTrgm(trgm *ptrgm, trgm_mb_char s[3])
{
    char        str[3 * MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN],
               *p;
    int         i,
                j;

    /* Write multibyte string into "str" (we don't need null termination) */
    p = str;

    for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)
    {
        if (s[i].bytes[0] != 0)
        {
            for (j = 0; j < MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN && s[i].bytes[j]; j++)
                *p++ = s[i].bytes[j];
        }
        else
        {
            /* Emit a space in place of COLOR_BLANK */
            *p++ = ' ';
        }
    }

    /* Convert "str" to a standard trigram (possibly hashing it) */
    compact_trigram(ptrgm, str, p - str);
}

/*
 * Merge two states of graph.
 */
static void
mergeStates(TrgmState *state1, TrgmState *state2)
{
    Assert(state1 != state2);
    Assert(!state1->parent);
    Assert(!state2->parent);

    /* state1 absorbs state2's flags */
    state1->flags |= state2->flags;

    /* state2, and indirectly all its children, become children of state1 */
    state2->parent = state1;
}

/*
 * Compare function for sorting of color trigrams by their colors.
 */
static int
colorTrgmInfoCmp(const void *p1, const void *p2)
{
    const ColorTrgmInfo *c1 = (const ColorTrgmInfo *) p1;
    const ColorTrgmInfo *c2 = (const ColorTrgmInfo *) p2;

    return memcmp(&c1->ctrgm, &c2->ctrgm, sizeof(ColorTrgm));
}

/*
 * Compare function for sorting color trigrams in descending order of
 * their penalty fields.
 */
static int
colorTrgmInfoPenaltyCmp(const void *p1, const void *p2)
{
    float4      penalty1 = ((const ColorTrgmInfo *) p1)->penalty;
    float4      penalty2 = ((const ColorTrgmInfo *) p2)->penalty;

    if (penalty1 < penalty2)
        return 1;
    else if (penalty1 == penalty2)
        return 0;
    else
        return -1;
}


/*---------------------
 * Subroutines for packing the graph into final representation (stage 4).
 *---------------------
 */

/*
 * Pack expanded graph into final representation.
 *
 * The result data must be allocated in rcontext.
 */
static TrgmPackedGraph *
packGraph(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA, MemoryContext rcontext)
{
    int         snumber = 2,
                arcIndex,
                arcsCount;
    HASH_SEQ_STATUS scan_status;
    TrgmState  *state;
    TrgmPackArcInfo *arcs,
               *p1,
               *p2;
    TrgmPackedArc *packedArcs;
    TrgmPackedGraph *result;
    int         i,
                j;

    /* Enumerate surviving states, giving init and fin reserved numbers */
    hash_seq_init(&scan_status, trgmNFA->states);
    while ((state = (TrgmState *) hash_seq_search(&scan_status)) != NULL)
    {
        while (state->parent)
            state = state->parent;

        if (state->snumber < 0)
        {
            if (state->flags & TSTATE_INIT)
                state->snumber = 0;
            else if (state->flags & TSTATE_FIN)
                state->snumber = 1;
            else
            {
                state->snumber = snumber;
                snumber++;
            }
        }
    }

    /* Collect array of all arcs */
    arcs = (TrgmPackArcInfo *)
        palloc(sizeof(TrgmPackArcInfo) * trgmNFA->arcsCount);
    arcIndex = 0;
    hash_seq_init(&scan_status, trgmNFA->states);
    while ((state = (TrgmState *) hash_seq_search(&scan_status)) != NULL)
    {
        TrgmState  *source = state;
        ListCell   *cell;

        while (source->parent)
            source = source->parent;

        foreach(cell, state->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArc    *arc = (TrgmArc *) lfirst(cell);
            TrgmState  *target = arc->target;

            while (target->parent)
                target = target->parent;

            if (source->snumber != target->snumber)
            {
                ColorTrgmInfo *ctrgm;

                ctrgm = (ColorTrgmInfo *) bsearch(&arc->ctrgm,
                                                  trgmNFA->colorTrgms,
                                                  trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount,
                                                  sizeof(ColorTrgmInfo),
                                                  colorTrgmInfoCmp);
                Assert(ctrgm != NULL);
                Assert(ctrgm->expanded);

                arcs[arcIndex].sourceState = source->snumber;
                arcs[arcIndex].targetState = target->snumber;
                arcs[arcIndex].colorTrgm = ctrgm->cnumber;
                arcIndex++;
            }
        }
    }

    /* Sort arcs to ease duplicate detection */
    qsort(arcs, arcIndex, sizeof(TrgmPackArcInfo), packArcInfoCmp);

    /* We could have duplicates because states were merged. Remove them. */
    /* p1 is probe point, p2 is last known non-duplicate. */
    p2 = arcs;
    for (p1 = arcs + 1; p1 < arcs + arcIndex; p1++)
    {
        if (packArcInfoCmp(p1, p2) > 0)
        {
            p2++;
            *p2 = *p1;
        }
    }
    arcsCount = (p2 - arcs) + 1;

    /* Create packed representation */
    result = (TrgmPackedGraph *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, sizeof(TrgmPackedGraph));

    /* Pack color trigrams information */
    result->colorTrigramsCount = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        if (trgmNFA->colorTrgms[i].expanded)
            result->colorTrigramsCount++;
    }
    result->colorTrigramGroups = (int *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, sizeof(int) * result->colorTrigramsCount);
    j = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < trgmNFA->colorTrgmsCount; i++)
    {
        if (trgmNFA->colorTrgms[i].expanded)
        {
            result->colorTrigramGroups[j] = trgmNFA->colorTrgms[i].count;
            j++;
        }
    }

    /* Pack states and arcs information */
    result->statesCount = snumber;
    result->states = (TrgmPackedState *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, snumber * sizeof(TrgmPackedState));
    packedArcs = (TrgmPackedArc *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, arcsCount * sizeof(TrgmPackedArc));
    j = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < snumber; i++)
    {
        int         cnt = 0;

        result->states[i].arcs = &packedArcs[j];
        while (j < arcsCount && arcs[j].sourceState == i)
        {
            packedArcs[j].targetState = arcs[j].targetState;
            packedArcs[j].colorTrgm = arcs[j].colorTrgm;
            cnt++;
            j++;
        }
        result->states[i].arcsCount = cnt;
    }

    /* Allocate working memory for trigramsMatchGraph() */
    result->colorTrigramsActive = (bool *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, sizeof(bool) * result->colorTrigramsCount);
    result->statesActive = (bool *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, sizeof(bool) * result->statesCount);
    result->statesQueue = (int *)
        MemoryContextAlloc(rcontext, sizeof(int) * result->statesCount);

    return result;
}

/*
 * Comparison function for sorting TrgmPackArcInfos.
 *
 * Compares arcs in following order: sourceState, colorTrgm, targetState.
 */
static int
packArcInfoCmp(const void *a1, const void *a2)
{
    const TrgmPackArcInfo *p1 = (const TrgmPackArcInfo *) a1;
    const TrgmPackArcInfo *p2 = (const TrgmPackArcInfo *) a2;

    if (p1->sourceState < p2->sourceState)
        return -1;
    if (p1->sourceState > p2->sourceState)
        return 1;
    if (p1->colorTrgm < p2->colorTrgm)
        return -1;
    if (p1->colorTrgm > p2->colorTrgm)
        return 1;
    if (p1->targetState < p2->targetState)
        return -1;
    if (p1->targetState > p2->targetState)
        return 1;
    return 0;
}


/*---------------------
 * Debugging functions
 *
 * These are designed to emit GraphViz files.
 *---------------------
 */

#ifdef TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG

/*
 * Print initial NFA, in regexp library's representation
 */
static void
printSourceNFA(regex_t *regex, TrgmColorInfo *colors, int ncolors)
{
    StringInfoData buf;
    int         nstates = pg_reg_getnumstates(regex);
    int         state;
    int         i;

    initStringInfo(&buf);

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "\ndigraph sourceNFA {\n");

    for (state = 0; state < nstates; state++)
    {
        regex_arc_t *arcs;
        int         i,
                    arcsCount;

        appendStringInfo(&buf, "s%d", state);
        if (pg_reg_getfinalstate(regex) == state)
            appendStringInfoString(&buf, " [shape = doublecircle]");
        appendStringInfoString(&buf, ";\n");

        arcsCount = pg_reg_getnumoutarcs(regex, state);
        arcs = (regex_arc_t *) palloc(sizeof(regex_arc_t) * arcsCount);
        pg_reg_getoutarcs(regex, state, arcs, arcsCount);

        for (i = 0; i < arcsCount; i++)
        {
            appendStringInfo(&buf, "  s%d -> s%d [label = \"%d\"];\n",
                             state, arcs[i].to, arcs[i].co);
        }

        pfree(arcs);
    }

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " node [shape = point ]; initial;\n");
    appendStringInfo(&buf, " initial -> s%d;\n",
                     pg_reg_getinitialstate(regex));

    /* Print colors */
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " { rank = sink;\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "  Colors [shape = none, margin=0, label=<\n");

    for (i = 0; i < ncolors; i++)
    {
        TrgmColorInfo *color = &colors[i];
        int         j;

        appendStringInfo(&buf, "<br/>Color %d: ", i);
        if (color->expandable)
        {
            for (j = 0; j < color->wordCharsCount; j++)
            {
                char        s[MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN + 1];

                memcpy(s, color->wordChars[j].bytes, MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN);
                s[MAX_MULTIBYTE_CHAR_LEN] = '\0';
                appendStringInfoString(&buf, s);
            }
        }
        else
            appendStringInfoString(&buf, "not expandable");
        appendStringInfoChar(&buf, '\n');
    }

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "  >];\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " }\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "}\n");

    {
        /* dot -Tpng -o /tmp/source.png < /tmp/source.dot */
        FILE       *fp = fopen("/tmp/source.dot", "w");

        fprintf(fp, "%s", buf.data);
        fclose(fp);
    }

    pfree(buf.data);
}

/*
 * Print expanded graph.
 */
static void
printTrgmNFA(TrgmNFA *trgmNFA)
{
    StringInfoData buf;
    HASH_SEQ_STATUS scan_status;
    TrgmState  *state;
    TrgmState  *initstate = NULL;

    initStringInfo(&buf);

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "\ndigraph transformedNFA {\n");

    hash_seq_init(&scan_status, trgmNFA->states);
    while ((state = (TrgmState *) hash_seq_search(&scan_status)) != NULL)
    {
        ListCell   *cell;

        appendStringInfo(&buf, "s%d", -state->snumber);
        if (state->flags & TSTATE_FIN)
            appendStringInfoString(&buf, " [shape = doublecircle]");
        if (state->flags & TSTATE_INIT)
            initstate = state;
        appendStringInfo(&buf, " [label = \"%d\"]", state->stateKey.nstate);
        appendStringInfoString(&buf, ";\n");

        foreach(cell, state->arcs)
        {
            TrgmArc    *arc = (TrgmArc *) lfirst(cell);

            appendStringInfo(&buf, "  s%d -> s%d [label = \"",
                             -state->snumber, -arc->target->snumber);
            printTrgmColor(&buf, arc->ctrgm.colors[0]);
            appendStringInfoChar(&buf, ' ');
            printTrgmColor(&buf, arc->ctrgm.colors[1]);
            appendStringInfoChar(&buf, ' ');
            printTrgmColor(&buf, arc->ctrgm.colors[2]);
            appendStringInfoString(&buf, "\"];\n");
        }
    }

    if (initstate)
    {
        appendStringInfoString(&buf, " node [shape = point ]; initial;\n");
        appendStringInfo(&buf, " initial -> s%d;\n", -initstate->snumber);
    }

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "}\n");

    {
        /* dot -Tpng -o /tmp/transformed.png < /tmp/transformed.dot */
        FILE       *fp = fopen("/tmp/transformed.dot", "w");

        fprintf(fp, "%s", buf.data);
        fclose(fp);
    }

    pfree(buf.data);
}

/*
 * Print a TrgmColor readably.
 */
static void
printTrgmColor(StringInfo buf, TrgmColor co)
{
    if (co == COLOR_UNKNOWN)
        appendStringInfoChar(buf, 'u');
    else if (co == COLOR_BLANK)
        appendStringInfoChar(buf, 'b');
    else
        appendStringInfo(buf, "%d", (int) co);
}

/*
 * Print final packed representation of trigram-based expanded graph.
 */
static void
printTrgmPackedGraph(TrgmPackedGraph *packedGraph, TRGM *trigrams)
{
    StringInfoData buf;
    trgm       *p;
    int         i;

    initStringInfo(&buf);

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "\ndigraph packedGraph {\n");

    for (i = 0; i < packedGraph->statesCount; i++)
    {
        TrgmPackedState *state = &packedGraph->states[i];
        int         j;

        appendStringInfo(&buf, " s%d", i);
        if (i == 1)
            appendStringInfoString(&buf, " [shape = doublecircle]");

        appendStringInfo(&buf, " [label = <s%d>];\n", i);

        for (j = 0; j < state->arcsCount; j++)
        {
            TrgmPackedArc *arc = &state->arcs[j];

            appendStringInfo(&buf, "  s%d -> s%d [label = \"trigram %d\"];\n",
                             i, arc->targetState, arc->colorTrgm);
        }
    }

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " node [shape = point ]; initial;\n");
    appendStringInfo(&buf, " initial -> s%d;\n", 0);

    /* Print trigrams */
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " { rank = sink;\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "  Trigrams [shape = none, margin=0, label=<\n");

    p = GETARR(trigrams);
    for (i = 0; i < packedGraph->colorTrigramsCount; i++)
    {
        int         count = packedGraph->colorTrigramGroups[i];
        int         j;

        appendStringInfo(&buf, "<br/>Trigram %d: ", i);

        for (j = 0; j < count; j++)
        {
            if (j > 0)
                appendStringInfoString(&buf, ", ");

            /*
             * XXX This representation is nice only for all-ASCII trigrams.
             */
            appendStringInfo(&buf, "\"%c%c%c\"", (*p)[0], (*p)[1], (*p)[2]);
            p++;
        }
    }

    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "  >];\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, " }\n");
    appendStringInfoString(&buf, "}\n");

    {
        /* dot -Tpng -o /tmp/packed.png < /tmp/packed.dot */
        FILE       *fp = fopen("/tmp/packed.dot", "w");

        fprintf(fp, "%s", buf.data);
        fclose(fp);
    }

    pfree(buf.data);
}

#endif                          /* TRGM_REGEXP_DEBUG */