varlena.c

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/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * varlena.c
 *    Functions for the variable-length built-in types.
 *
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2019, PostgreSQL Global Development Group
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California
 *
 *
 * IDENTIFICATION
 *    src/backend/utils/adt/varlena.c
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
#include "postgres.h"

#include <ctype.h>
#include <limits.h>

#include "access/detoast.h"
#include "catalog/pg_collation.h"
#include "catalog/pg_type.h"
#include "common/int.h"
#include "lib/hyperloglog.h"
#include "libpq/pqformat.h"
#include "miscadmin.h"
#include "parser/scansup.h"
#include "port/pg_bswap.h"
#include "regex/regex.h"
#include "utils/builtins.h"
#include "utils/bytea.h"
#include "utils/hashutils.h"
#include "utils/lsyscache.h"
#include "utils/memutils.h"
#include "utils/pg_locale.h"
#include "utils/sortsupport.h"
#include "utils/varlena.h"


/* GUC variable */
int         bytea_output = BYTEA_OUTPUT_HEX;

typedef struct varlena unknown;
typedef struct varlena VarString;

/*
 * State for text_position_* functions.
 */
typedef struct
{
    bool        is_multibyte;   /* T if multibyte encoding */
    bool        is_multibyte_char_in_char;

    char       *str1;           /* haystack string */
    char       *str2;           /* needle string */
    int         len1;           /* string lengths in bytes */
    int         len2;

    /* Skip table for Boyer-Moore-Horspool search algorithm: */
    int         skiptablemask;  /* mask for ANDing with skiptable subscripts */
    int         skiptable[256]; /* skip distance for given mismatched char */

    char       *last_match;     /* pointer to last match in 'str1' */

    /*
     * Sometimes we need to convert the byte position of a match to a
     * character position.  These store the last position that was converted,
     * so that on the next call, we can continue from that point, rather than
     * count characters from the very beginning.
     */
    char       *refpoint;       /* pointer within original haystack string */
    int         refpos;         /* 0-based character offset of the same point */
} TextPositionState;

typedef struct
{
    char       *buf1;           /* 1st string, or abbreviation original string
                                 * buf */
    char       *buf2;           /* 2nd string, or abbreviation strxfrm() buf */
    int         buflen1;
    int         buflen2;
    int         last_len1;      /* Length of last buf1 string/strxfrm() input */
    int         last_len2;      /* Length of last buf2 string/strxfrm() blob */
    int         last_returned;  /* Last comparison result (cache) */
    bool        cache_blob;     /* Does buf2 contain strxfrm() blob, etc? */
    bool        collate_c;
    Oid         typid;          /* Actual datatype (text/bpchar/bytea/name) */
    hyperLogLogState abbr_card; /* Abbreviated key cardinality state */
    hyperLogLogState full_card; /* Full key cardinality state */
    double      prop_card;      /* Required cardinality proportion */
    pg_locale_t locale;
} VarStringSortSupport;

/*
 * This should be large enough that most strings will fit, but small enough
 * that we feel comfortable putting it on the stack
 */
#define TEXTBUFLEN      1024

#define DatumGetUnknownP(X)         ((unknown *) PG_DETOAST_DATUM(X))
#define DatumGetUnknownPCopy(X)     ((unknown *) PG_DETOAST_DATUM_COPY(X))
#define PG_GETARG_UNKNOWN_P(n)      DatumGetUnknownP(PG_GETARG_DATUM(n))
#define PG_GETARG_UNKNOWN_P_COPY(n) DatumGetUnknownPCopy(PG_GETARG_DATUM(n))
#define PG_RETURN_UNKNOWN_P(x)      PG_RETURN_POINTER(x)

#define DatumGetVarStringP(X)       ((VarString *) PG_DETOAST_DATUM(X))
#define DatumGetVarStringPP(X)      ((VarString *) PG_DETOAST_DATUM_PACKED(X))

static int  varstrfastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static int  bpcharfastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static int  namefastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static int  varlenafastcmp_locale(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static int  namefastcmp_locale(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static int  varstrfastcmp_locale(char *a1p, int len1, char *a2p, int len2, SortSupport ssup);
static int  varstrcmp_abbrev(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup);
static Datum varstr_abbrev_convert(Datum original, SortSupport ssup);
static bool varstr_abbrev_abort(int memtupcount, SortSupport ssup);
static int32 text_length(Datum str);
static text *text_catenate(text *t1, text *t2);
static text *text_substring(Datum str,
                            int32 start,
                            int32 length,
                            bool length_not_specified);
static text *text_overlay(text *t1, text *t2, int sp, int sl);
static int  text_position(text *t1, text *t2, Oid collid);
static void text_position_setup(text *t1, text *t2, Oid collid, TextPositionState *state);
static bool text_position_next(TextPositionState *state);
static char *text_position_next_internal(char *start_ptr, TextPositionState *state);
static char *text_position_get_match_ptr(TextPositionState *state);
static int  text_position_get_match_pos(TextPositionState *state);
static void text_position_cleanup(TextPositionState *state);
static void check_collation_set(Oid collid);
static int  text_cmp(text *arg1, text *arg2, Oid collid);
static bytea *bytea_catenate(bytea *t1, bytea *t2);
static bytea *bytea_substring(Datum str,
                              int S,
                              int L,
                              bool length_not_specified);
static bytea *bytea_overlay(bytea *t1, bytea *t2, int sp, int sl);
static void appendStringInfoText(StringInfo str, const text *t);
static Datum text_to_array_internal(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS);
static text *array_to_text_internal(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo, ArrayType *v,
                                    const char *fldsep, const char *null_string);
static StringInfo makeStringAggState(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo);
static bool text_format_parse_digits(const char **ptr, const char *end_ptr,
                                     int *value);
static const char *text_format_parse_format(const char *start_ptr,
                                            const char *end_ptr,
                                            int *argpos, int *widthpos,
                                            int *flags, int *width);
static void text_format_string_conversion(StringInfo buf, char conversion,
                                          FmgrInfo *typOutputInfo,
                                          Datum value, bool isNull,
                                          int flags, int width);
static void text_format_append_string(StringInfo buf, const char *str,
                                      int flags, int width);


/*****************************************************************************
 *   CONVERSION ROUTINES EXPORTED FOR USE BY C CODE                          *
 *****************************************************************************/

/*
 * cstring_to_text
 *
 * Create a text value from a null-terminated C string.
 *
 * The new text value is freshly palloc'd with a full-size VARHDR.
 */
text *
cstring_to_text(const char *s)
{
    return cstring_to_text_with_len(s, strlen(s));
}

/*
 * cstring_to_text_with_len
 *
 * Same as cstring_to_text except the caller specifies the string length;
 * the string need not be null_terminated.
 */
text *
cstring_to_text_with_len(const char *s, int len)
{
    text       *result = (text *) palloc(len + VARHDRSZ);

    SET_VARSIZE(result, len + VARHDRSZ);
    memcpy(VARDATA(result), s, len);

    return result;
}

/*
 * text_to_cstring
 *
 * Create a palloc'd, null-terminated C string from a text value.
 *
 * We support being passed a compressed or toasted text value.
 * This is a bit bogus since such values shouldn't really be referred to as
 * "text *", but it seems useful for robustness.  If we didn't handle that
 * case here, we'd need another routine that did, anyway.
 */
char *
text_to_cstring(const text *t)
{
    /* must cast away the const, unfortunately */
    text       *tunpacked = pg_detoast_datum_packed(unconstify(text *, t));
    int         len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(tunpacked);
    char       *result;

    result = (char *) palloc(len + 1);
    memcpy(result, VARDATA_ANY(tunpacked), len);
    result[len] = '\0';

    if (tunpacked != t)
        pfree(tunpacked);

    return result;
}

/*
 * text_to_cstring_buffer
 *
 * Copy a text value into a caller-supplied buffer of size dst_len.
 *
 * The text string is truncated if necessary to fit.  The result is
 * guaranteed null-terminated (unless dst_len == 0).
 *
 * We support being passed a compressed or toasted text value.
 * This is a bit bogus since such values shouldn't really be referred to as
 * "text *", but it seems useful for robustness.  If we didn't handle that
 * case here, we'd need another routine that did, anyway.
 */
void
text_to_cstring_buffer(const text *src, char *dst, size_t dst_len)
{
    /* must cast away the const, unfortunately */
    text       *srcunpacked = pg_detoast_datum_packed(unconstify(text *, src));
    size_t      src_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(srcunpacked);

    if (dst_len > 0)
    {
        dst_len--;
        if (dst_len >= src_len)
            dst_len = src_len;
        else                    /* ensure truncation is encoding-safe */
            dst_len = pg_mbcliplen(VARDATA_ANY(srcunpacked), src_len, dst_len);
        memcpy(dst, VARDATA_ANY(srcunpacked), dst_len);
        dst[dst_len] = '\0';
    }

    if (srcunpacked != src)
        pfree(srcunpacked);
}


/*****************************************************************************
 *   USER I/O ROUTINES                                                       *
 *****************************************************************************/


#define VAL(CH)         ((CH) - '0')
#define DIG(VAL)        ((VAL) + '0')

/*
 *      byteain         - converts from printable representation of byte array
 *
 *      Non-printable characters must be passed as '\nnn' (octal) and are
 *      converted to internal form.  '\' must be passed as '\\'.
 *      ereport(ERROR, ...) if bad form.
 *
 *      BUGS:
 *              The input is scanned twice.
 *              The error checking of input is minimal.
 */
Datum
byteain(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    char       *inputText = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);
    char       *tp;
    char       *rp;
    int         bc;
    bytea      *result;

    /* Recognize hex input */
    if (inputText[0] == '\\' && inputText[1] == 'x')
    {
        size_t      len = strlen(inputText);

        bc = (len - 2) / 2 + VARHDRSZ;  /* maximum possible length */
        result = palloc(bc);
        bc = hex_decode(inputText + 2, len - 2, VARDATA(result));
        SET_VARSIZE(result, bc + VARHDRSZ); /* actual length */

        PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(result);
    }

    /* Else, it's the traditional escaped style */
    for (bc = 0, tp = inputText; *tp != '\0'; bc++)
    {
        if (tp[0] != '\\')
            tp++;
        else if ((tp[0] == '\\') &&
                 (tp[1] >= '0' && tp[1] <= '3') &&
                 (tp[2] >= '0' && tp[2] <= '7') &&
                 (tp[3] >= '0' && tp[3] <= '7'))
            tp += 4;
        else if ((tp[0] == '\\') &&
                 (tp[1] == '\\'))
            tp += 2;
        else
        {
            /*
             * one backslash, not followed by another or ### valid octal
             */
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_TEXT_REPRESENTATION),
                     errmsg("invalid input syntax for type %s", "bytea")));
        }
    }

    bc += VARHDRSZ;

    result = (bytea *) palloc(bc);
    SET_VARSIZE(result, bc);

    tp = inputText;
    rp = VARDATA(result);
    while (*tp != '\0')
    {
        if (tp[0] != '\\')
            *rp++ = *tp++;
        else if ((tp[0] == '\\') &&
                 (tp[1] >= '0' && tp[1] <= '3') &&
                 (tp[2] >= '0' && tp[2] <= '7') &&
                 (tp[3] >= '0' && tp[3] <= '7'))
        {
            bc = VAL(tp[1]);
            bc <<= 3;
            bc += VAL(tp[2]);
            bc <<= 3;
            *rp++ = bc + VAL(tp[3]);

            tp += 4;
        }
        else if ((tp[0] == '\\') &&
                 (tp[1] == '\\'))
        {
            *rp++ = '\\';
            tp += 2;
        }
        else
        {
            /*
             * We should never get here. The first pass should not allow it.
             */
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_TEXT_REPRESENTATION),
                     errmsg("invalid input syntax for type %s", "bytea")));
        }
    }

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(result);
}

/*
 *      byteaout        - converts to printable representation of byte array
 *
 *      In the traditional escaped format, non-printable characters are
 *      printed as '\nnn' (octal) and '\' as '\\'.
 */
Datum
byteaout(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *vlena = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    char       *result;
    char       *rp;

    if (bytea_output == BYTEA_OUTPUT_HEX)
    {
        /* Print hex format */
        rp = result = palloc(VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(vlena) * 2 + 2 + 1);
        *rp++ = '\\';
        *rp++ = 'x';
        rp += hex_encode(VARDATA_ANY(vlena), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(vlena), rp);
    }
    else if (bytea_output == BYTEA_OUTPUT_ESCAPE)
    {
        /* Print traditional escaped format */
        char       *vp;
        int         len;
        int         i;

        len = 1;                /* empty string has 1 char */
        vp = VARDATA_ANY(vlena);
        for (i = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(vlena); i != 0; i--, vp++)
        {
            if (*vp == '\\')
                len += 2;
            else if ((unsigned char) *vp < 0x20 || (unsigned char) *vp > 0x7e)
                len += 4;
            else
                len++;
        }
        rp = result = (char *) palloc(len);
        vp = VARDATA_ANY(vlena);
        for (i = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(vlena); i != 0; i--, vp++)
        {
            if (*vp == '\\')
            {
                *rp++ = '\\';
                *rp++ = '\\';
            }
            else if ((unsigned char) *vp < 0x20 || (unsigned char) *vp > 0x7e)
            {
                int         val;    /* holds unprintable chars */

                val = *vp;
                rp[0] = '\\';
                rp[3] = DIG(val & 07);
                val >>= 3;
                rp[2] = DIG(val & 07);
                val >>= 3;
                rp[1] = DIG(val & 03);
                rp += 4;
            }
            else
                *rp++ = *vp;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        elog(ERROR, "unrecognized bytea_output setting: %d",
             bytea_output);
        rp = result = NULL;     /* keep compiler quiet */
    }
    *rp = '\0';
    PG_RETURN_CSTRING(result);
}

/*
 *      bytearecv           - converts external binary format to bytea
 */
Datum
bytearecv(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  buf = (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    bytea      *result;
    int         nbytes;

    nbytes = buf->len - buf->cursor;
    result = (bytea *) palloc(nbytes + VARHDRSZ);
    SET_VARSIZE(result, nbytes + VARHDRSZ);
    pq_copymsgbytes(buf, VARDATA(result), nbytes);
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(result);
}

/*
 *      byteasend           - converts bytea to binary format
 *
 * This is a special case: just copy the input...
 */
Datum
byteasend(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *vlena = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_P_COPY(0);

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(vlena);
}

Datum
bytea_string_agg_transfn(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  state;

    state = PG_ARGISNULL(0) ? NULL : (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);

    /* Append the value unless null. */
    if (!PG_ARGISNULL(1))
    {
        bytea      *value = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);

        /* On the first time through, we ignore the delimiter. */
        if (state == NULL)
            state = makeStringAggState(fcinfo);
        else if (!PG_ARGISNULL(2))
        {
            bytea      *delim = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(2);

            appendBinaryStringInfo(state, VARDATA_ANY(delim), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(delim));
        }

        appendBinaryStringInfo(state, VARDATA_ANY(value), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(value));
    }

    /*
     * The transition type for string_agg() is declared to be "internal",
     * which is a pass-by-value type the same size as a pointer.
     */
    PG_RETURN_POINTER(state);
}

Datum
bytea_string_agg_finalfn(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  state;

    /* cannot be called directly because of internal-type argument */
    Assert(AggCheckCallContext(fcinfo, NULL));

    state = PG_ARGISNULL(0) ? NULL : (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);

    if (state != NULL)
    {
        bytea      *result;

        result = (bytea *) palloc(state->len + VARHDRSZ);
        SET_VARSIZE(result, state->len + VARHDRSZ);
        memcpy(VARDATA(result), state->data, state->len);
        PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(result);
    }
    else
        PG_RETURN_NULL();
}

/*
 *      textin          - converts "..." to internal representation
 */
Datum
textin(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    char       *inputText = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(inputText));
}

/*
 *      textout         - converts internal representation to "..."
 */
Datum
textout(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       txt = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);

    PG_RETURN_CSTRING(TextDatumGetCString(txt));
}

/*
 *      textrecv            - converts external binary format to text
 */
Datum
textrecv(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  buf = (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    text       *result;
    char       *str;
    int         nbytes;

    str = pq_getmsgtext(buf, buf->len - buf->cursor, &nbytes);

    result = cstring_to_text_with_len(str, nbytes);
    pfree(str);
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}

/*
 *      textsend            - converts text to binary format
 */
Datum
textsend(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *t = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    StringInfoData buf;

    pq_begintypsend(&buf);
    pq_sendtext(&buf, VARDATA_ANY(t), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t));
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(pq_endtypsend(&buf));
}


/*
 *      unknownin           - converts "..." to internal representation
 */
Datum
unknownin(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    char       *str = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);

    /* representation is same as cstring */
    PG_RETURN_CSTRING(pstrdup(str));
}

/*
 *      unknownout          - converts internal representation to "..."
 */
Datum
unknownout(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    /* representation is same as cstring */
    char       *str = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);

    PG_RETURN_CSTRING(pstrdup(str));
}

/*
 *      unknownrecv         - converts external binary format to unknown
 */
Datum
unknownrecv(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  buf = (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    char       *str;
    int         nbytes;

    str = pq_getmsgtext(buf, buf->len - buf->cursor, &nbytes);
    /* representation is same as cstring */
    PG_RETURN_CSTRING(str);
}

/*
 *      unknownsend         - converts unknown to binary format
 */
Datum
unknownsend(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    /* representation is same as cstring */
    char       *str = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);
    StringInfoData buf;

    pq_begintypsend(&buf);
    pq_sendtext(&buf, str, strlen(str));
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(pq_endtypsend(&buf));
}


/* ========== PUBLIC ROUTINES ========== */

/*
 * textlen -
 *    returns the logical length of a text*
 *     (which is less than the VARSIZE of the text*)
 */
Datum
textlen(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       str = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);

    /* try to avoid decompressing argument */
    PG_RETURN_INT32(text_length(str));
}

/*
 * text_length -
 *  Does the real work for textlen()
 *
 *  This is broken out so it can be called directly by other string processing
 *  functions.  Note that the argument is passed as a Datum, to indicate that
 *  it may still be in compressed form.  We can avoid decompressing it at all
 *  in some cases.
 */
static int32
text_length(Datum str)
{
    /* fastpath when max encoding length is one */
    if (pg_database_encoding_max_length() == 1)
        PG_RETURN_INT32(toast_raw_datum_size(str) - VARHDRSZ);
    else
    {
        text       *t = DatumGetTextPP(str);

        PG_RETURN_INT32(pg_mbstrlen_with_len(VARDATA_ANY(t),
                                             VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t)));
    }
}

/*
 * textoctetlen -
 *    returns the physical length of a text*
 *     (which is less than the VARSIZE of the text*)
 */
Datum
textoctetlen(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       str = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);

    /* We need not detoast the input at all */
    PG_RETURN_INT32(toast_raw_datum_size(str) - VARHDRSZ);
}

/*
 * textcat -
 *    takes two text* and returns a text* that is the concatenation of
 *    the two.
 *
 * Rewritten by Sapa, sapa@hq.icb.chel.su. 8-Jul-96.
 * Updated by Thomas, Thomas.Lockhart@jpl.nasa.gov 1997-07-10.
 * Allocate space for output in all cases.
 * XXX - thomas 1997-07-10
 */
Datum
textcat(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *t1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *t2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_catenate(t1, t2));
}

/*
 * text_catenate
 *  Guts of textcat(), broken out so it can be used by other functions
 *
 * Arguments can be in short-header form, but not compressed or out-of-line
 */
static text *
text_catenate(text *t1, text *t2)
{
    text       *result;
    int         len1,
                len2,
                len;
    char       *ptr;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2);

    /* paranoia ... probably should throw error instead? */
    if (len1 < 0)
        len1 = 0;
    if (len2 < 0)
        len2 = 0;

    len = len1 + len2 + VARHDRSZ;
    result = (text *) palloc(len);

    /* Set size of result string... */
    SET_VARSIZE(result, len);

    /* Fill data field of result string... */
    ptr = VARDATA(result);
    if (len1 > 0)
        memcpy(ptr, VARDATA_ANY(t1), len1);
    if (len2 > 0)
        memcpy(ptr + len1, VARDATA_ANY(t2), len2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * charlen_to_bytelen()
 *  Compute the number of bytes occupied by n characters starting at *p
 *
 * It is caller's responsibility that there actually are n characters;
 * the string need not be null-terminated.
 */
static int
charlen_to_bytelen(const char *p, int n)
{
    if (pg_database_encoding_max_length() == 1)
    {
        /* Optimization for single-byte encodings */
        return n;
    }
    else
    {
        const char *s;

        for (s = p; n > 0; n--)
            s += pg_mblen(s);

        return s - p;
    }
}

/*
 * text_substr()
 * Return a substring starting at the specified position.
 * - thomas 1997-12-31
 *
 * Input:
 *  - string
 *  - starting position (is one-based)
 *  - string length
 *
 * If the starting position is zero or less, then return from the start of the string
 *  adjusting the length to be consistent with the "negative start" per SQL.
 * If the length is less than zero, return the remaining string.
 *
 * Added multibyte support.
 * - Tatsuo Ishii 1998-4-21
 * Changed behavior if starting position is less than one to conform to SQL behavior.
 * Formerly returned the entire string; now returns a portion.
 * - Thomas Lockhart 1998-12-10
 * Now uses faster TOAST-slicing interface
 * - John Gray 2002-02-22
 * Remove "#ifdef MULTIBYTE" and test for encoding_max_length instead. Change
 * behaviors conflicting with SQL to meet SQL (if E = S + L < S throw
 * error; if E < 1, return '', not entire string). Fixed MB related bug when
 * S > LC and < LC + 4 sometimes garbage characters are returned.
 * - Joe Conway 2002-08-10
 */
Datum
text_substr(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_substring(PG_GETARG_DATUM(0),
                                    PG_GETARG_INT32(1),
                                    PG_GETARG_INT32(2),
                                    false));
}

/*
 * text_substr_no_len -
 *    Wrapper to avoid opr_sanity failure due to
 *    one function accepting a different number of args.
 */
Datum
text_substr_no_len(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_substring(PG_GETARG_DATUM(0),
                                    PG_GETARG_INT32(1),
                                    -1, true));
}

/*
 * text_substring -
 *  Does the real work for text_substr() and text_substr_no_len()
 *
 *  This is broken out so it can be called directly by other string processing
 *  functions.  Note that the argument is passed as a Datum, to indicate that
 *  it may still be in compressed/toasted form.  We can avoid detoasting all
 *  of it in some cases.
 *
 *  The result is always a freshly palloc'd datum.
 */
static text *
text_substring(Datum str, int32 start, int32 length, bool length_not_specified)
{
    int32       eml = pg_database_encoding_max_length();
    int32       S = start;      /* start position */
    int32       S1;             /* adjusted start position */
    int32       L1;             /* adjusted substring length */

    /* life is easy if the encoding max length is 1 */
    if (eml == 1)
    {
        S1 = Max(S, 1);

        if (length_not_specified)   /* special case - get length to end of
                                     * string */
            L1 = -1;
        else
        {
            /* end position */
            int         E = S + length;

            /*
             * A negative value for L is the only way for the end position to
             * be before the start. SQL99 says to throw an error.
             */
            if (E < S)
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_SUBSTRING_ERROR),
                         errmsg("negative substring length not allowed")));

            /*
             * A zero or negative value for the end position can happen if the
             * start was negative or one. SQL99 says to return a zero-length
             * string.
             */
            if (E < 1)
                return cstring_to_text("");

            L1 = E - S1;
        }

        /*
         * If the start position is past the end of the string, SQL99 says to
         * return a zero-length string -- PG_GETARG_TEXT_P_SLICE() will do
         * that for us. Convert to zero-based starting position
         */
        return DatumGetTextPSlice(str, S1 - 1, L1);
    }
    else if (eml > 1)
    {
        /*
         * When encoding max length is > 1, we can't get LC without
         * detoasting, so we'll grab a conservatively large slice now and go
         * back later to do the right thing
         */
        int32       slice_start;
        int32       slice_size;
        int32       slice_strlen;
        text       *slice;
        int32       E1;
        int32       i;
        char       *p;
        char       *s;
        text       *ret;

        /*
         * if S is past the end of the string, the tuple toaster will return a
         * zero-length string to us
         */
        S1 = Max(S, 1);

        /*
         * We need to start at position zero because there is no way to know
         * in advance which byte offset corresponds to the supplied start
         * position.
         */
        slice_start = 0;

        if (length_not_specified)   /* special case - get length to end of
                                     * string */
            slice_size = L1 = -1;
        else
        {
            int         E = S + length;

            /*
             * A negative value for L is the only way for the end position to
             * be before the start. SQL99 says to throw an error.
             */
            if (E < S)
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_SUBSTRING_ERROR),
                         errmsg("negative substring length not allowed")));

            /*
             * A zero or negative value for the end position can happen if the
             * start was negative or one. SQL99 says to return a zero-length
             * string.
             */
            if (E < 1)
                return cstring_to_text("");

            /*
             * if E is past the end of the string, the tuple toaster will
             * truncate the length for us
             */
            L1 = E - S1;

            /*
             * Total slice size in bytes can't be any longer than the start
             * position plus substring length times the encoding max length.
             */
            slice_size = (S1 + L1) * eml;
        }

        /*
         * If we're working with an untoasted source, no need to do an extra
         * copying step.
         */
        if (VARATT_IS_COMPRESSED(DatumGetPointer(str)) ||
            VARATT_IS_EXTERNAL(DatumGetPointer(str)))
            slice = DatumGetTextPSlice(str, slice_start, slice_size);
        else
            slice = (text *) DatumGetPointer(str);

        /* see if we got back an empty string */
        if (VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(slice) == 0)
        {
            if (slice != (text *) DatumGetPointer(str))
                pfree(slice);
            return cstring_to_text("");
        }

        /* Now we can get the actual length of the slice in MB characters */
        slice_strlen = pg_mbstrlen_with_len(VARDATA_ANY(slice),
                                            VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(slice));

        /*
         * Check that the start position wasn't > slice_strlen. If so, SQL99
         * says to return a zero-length string.
         */
        if (S1 > slice_strlen)
        {
            if (slice != (text *) DatumGetPointer(str))
                pfree(slice);
            return cstring_to_text("");
        }

        /*
         * Adjust L1 and E1 now that we know the slice string length. Again
         * remember that S1 is one based, and slice_start is zero based.
         */
        if (L1 > -1)
            E1 = Min(S1 + L1, slice_start + 1 + slice_strlen);
        else
            E1 = slice_start + 1 + slice_strlen;

        /*
         * Find the start position in the slice; remember S1 is not zero based
         */
        p = VARDATA_ANY(slice);
        for (i = 0; i < S1 - 1; i++)
            p += pg_mblen(p);

        /* hang onto a pointer to our start position */
        s = p;

        /*
         * Count the actual bytes used by the substring of the requested
         * length.
         */
        for (i = S1; i < E1; i++)
            p += pg_mblen(p);

        ret = (text *) palloc(VARHDRSZ + (p - s));
        SET_VARSIZE(ret, VARHDRSZ + (p - s));
        memcpy(VARDATA(ret), s, (p - s));

        if (slice != (text *) DatumGetPointer(str))
            pfree(slice);

        return ret;
    }
    else
        elog(ERROR, "invalid backend encoding: encoding max length < 1");

    /* not reached: suppress compiler warning */
    return NULL;
}

/*
 * textoverlay
 *  Replace specified substring of first string with second
 *
 * The SQL standard defines OVERLAY() in terms of substring and concatenation.
 * This code is a direct implementation of what the standard says.
 */
Datum
textoverlay(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *t1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *t2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         sp = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);    /* substring start position */
    int         sl = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);    /* substring length */

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_overlay(t1, t2, sp, sl));
}

Datum
textoverlay_no_len(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *t1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *t2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         sp = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);    /* substring start position */
    int         sl;

    sl = text_length(PointerGetDatum(t2));  /* defaults to length(t2) */
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_overlay(t1, t2, sp, sl));
}

static text *
text_overlay(text *t1, text *t2, int sp, int sl)
{
    text       *result;
    text       *s1;
    text       *s2;
    int         sp_pl_sl;

    /*
     * Check for possible integer-overflow cases.  For negative sp, throw a
     * "substring length" error because that's what should be expected
     * according to the spec's definition of OVERLAY().
     */
    if (sp <= 0)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_SUBSTRING_ERROR),
                 errmsg("negative substring length not allowed")));
    if (pg_add_s32_overflow(sp, sl, &sp_pl_sl))
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
                 errmsg("integer out of range")));

    s1 = text_substring(PointerGetDatum(t1), 1, sp - 1, false);
    s2 = text_substring(PointerGetDatum(t1), sp_pl_sl, -1, true);
    result = text_catenate(s1, t2);
    result = text_catenate(result, s2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * textpos -
 *    Return the position of the specified substring.
 *    Implements the SQL POSITION() function.
 *    Ref: A Guide To The SQL Standard, Date & Darwen, 1997
 * - thomas 1997-07-27
 */
Datum
textpos(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *str = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *search_str = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);

    PG_RETURN_INT32((int32) text_position(str, search_str, PG_GET_COLLATION()));
}

/*
 * text_position -
 *  Does the real work for textpos()
 *
 * Inputs:
 *      t1 - string to be searched
 *      t2 - pattern to match within t1
 * Result:
 *      Character index of the first matched char, starting from 1,
 *      or 0 if no match.
 *
 *  This is broken out so it can be called directly by other string processing
 *  functions.
 */
static int
text_position(text *t1, text *t2, Oid collid)
{
    TextPositionState state;
    int         result;

    if (VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t1) < 1 || VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2) < 1)
        return 0;

    text_position_setup(t1, t2, collid, &state);
    if (!text_position_next(&state))
        result = 0;
    else
        result = text_position_get_match_pos(&state);
    text_position_cleanup(&state);
    return result;
}


/*
 * text_position_setup, text_position_next, text_position_cleanup -
 *  Component steps of text_position()
 *
 * These are broken out so that a string can be efficiently searched for
 * multiple occurrences of the same pattern.  text_position_next may be
 * called multiple times, and it advances to the next match on each call.
 * text_position_get_match_ptr() and text_position_get_match_pos() return
 * a pointer or 1-based character position of the last match, respectively.
 *
 * The "state" variable is normally just a local variable in the caller.
 *
 * NOTE: text_position_next skips over the matched portion.  For example,
 * searching for "xx" in "xxx" returns only one match, not two.
 */

static void
text_position_setup(text *t1, text *t2, Oid collid, TextPositionState *state)
{
    int         len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t1);
    int         len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2);
    pg_locale_t mylocale = 0;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (!lc_collate_is_c(collid) && collid != DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID)
        mylocale = pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid);

    if (mylocale && !mylocale->deterministic)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
                 errmsg("nondeterministic collations are not supported for substring searches")));

    Assert(len1 > 0);
    Assert(len2 > 0);

    /*
     * Even with a multi-byte encoding, we perform the search using the raw
     * byte sequence, ignoring multibyte issues.  For UTF-8, that works fine,
     * because in UTF-8 the byte sequence of one character cannot contain
     * another character.  For other multi-byte encodings, we do the search
     * initially as a simple byte search, ignoring multibyte issues, but
     * verify afterwards that the match we found is at a character boundary,
     * and continue the search if it was a false match.
     */
    if (pg_database_encoding_max_length() == 1)
    {
        state->is_multibyte = false;
        state->is_multibyte_char_in_char = false;
    }
    else if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8)
    {
        state->is_multibyte = true;
        state->is_multibyte_char_in_char = false;
    }
    else
    {
        state->is_multibyte = true;
        state->is_multibyte_char_in_char = true;
    }

    state->str1 = VARDATA_ANY(t1);
    state->str2 = VARDATA_ANY(t2);
    state->len1 = len1;
    state->len2 = len2;
    state->last_match = NULL;
    state->refpoint = state->str1;
    state->refpos = 0;

    /*
     * Prepare the skip table for Boyer-Moore-Horspool searching.  In these
     * notes we use the terminology that the "haystack" is the string to be
     * searched (t1) and the "needle" is the pattern being sought (t2).
     *
     * If the needle is empty or bigger than the haystack then there is no
     * point in wasting cycles initializing the table.  We also choose not to
     * use B-M-H for needles of length 1, since the skip table can't possibly
     * save anything in that case.
     */
    if (len1 >= len2 && len2 > 1)
    {
        int         searchlength = len1 - len2;
        int         skiptablemask;
        int         last;
        int         i;
        const char *str2 = state->str2;

        /*
         * First we must determine how much of the skip table to use.  The
         * declaration of TextPositionState allows up to 256 elements, but for
         * short search problems we don't really want to have to initialize so
         * many elements --- it would take too long in comparison to the
         * actual search time.  So we choose a useful skip table size based on
         * the haystack length minus the needle length.  The closer the needle
         * length is to the haystack length the less useful skipping becomes.
         *
         * Note: since we use bit-masking to select table elements, the skip
         * table size MUST be a power of 2, and so the mask must be 2^N-1.
         */
        if (searchlength < 16)
            skiptablemask = 3;
        else if (searchlength < 64)
            skiptablemask = 7;
        else if (searchlength < 128)
            skiptablemask = 15;
        else if (searchlength < 512)
            skiptablemask = 31;
        else if (searchlength < 2048)
            skiptablemask = 63;
        else if (searchlength < 4096)
            skiptablemask = 127;
        else
            skiptablemask = 255;
        state->skiptablemask = skiptablemask;

        /*
         * Initialize the skip table.  We set all elements to the needle
         * length, since this is the correct skip distance for any character
         * not found in the needle.
         */
        for (i = 0; i <= skiptablemask; i++)
            state->skiptable[i] = len2;

        /*
         * Now examine the needle.  For each character except the last one,
         * set the corresponding table element to the appropriate skip
         * distance.  Note that when two characters share the same skip table
         * entry, the one later in the needle must determine the skip
         * distance.
         */
        last = len2 - 1;

        for (i = 0; i < last; i++)
            state->skiptable[(unsigned char) str2[i] & skiptablemask] = last - i;
    }
}

/*
 * Advance to the next match, starting from the end of the previous match
 * (or the beginning of the string, on first call).  Returns true if a match
 * is found.
 */
static bool
text_position_next(TextPositionState *state)
{
    int         needle_len = state->len2;
    char       *start_ptr;
    char       *matchptr;

    if (needle_len <= 0)
        return false;           /* result for empty pattern */

    /* Start from the point right after the previous match. */
    if (state->last_match)
        start_ptr = state->last_match + needle_len;
    else
        start_ptr = state->str1;

retry:
    matchptr = text_position_next_internal(start_ptr, state);

    if (!matchptr)
        return false;

    /*
     * Found a match for the byte sequence.  If this is a multibyte encoding,
     * where one character's byte sequence can appear inside a longer
     * multi-byte character, we need to verify that the match was at a
     * character boundary, not in the middle of a multi-byte character.
     */
    if (state->is_multibyte_char_in_char)
    {
        /* Walk one character at a time, until we reach the match. */

        /* the search should never move backwards. */
        Assert(state->refpoint <= matchptr);

        while (state->refpoint < matchptr)
        {
            /* step to next character. */
            state->refpoint += pg_mblen(state->refpoint);
            state->refpos++;

            /*
             * If we stepped over the match's start position, then it was a
             * false positive, where the byte sequence appeared in the middle
             * of a multi-byte character.  Skip it, and continue the search at
             * the next character boundary.
             */
            if (state->refpoint > matchptr)
            {
                start_ptr = state->refpoint;
                goto retry;
            }
        }
    }

    state->last_match = matchptr;
    return true;
}

/*
 * Subroutine of text_position_next().  This searches for the raw byte
 * sequence, ignoring any multi-byte encoding issues.  Returns the first
 * match starting at 'start_ptr', or NULL if no match is found.
 */
static char *
text_position_next_internal(char *start_ptr, TextPositionState *state)
{
    int         haystack_len = state->len1;
    int         needle_len = state->len2;
    int         skiptablemask = state->skiptablemask;
    const char *haystack = state->str1;
    const char *needle = state->str2;
    const char *haystack_end = &haystack[haystack_len];
    const char *hptr;

    Assert(start_ptr >= haystack && start_ptr <= haystack_end);

    if (needle_len == 1)
    {
        /* No point in using B-M-H for a one-character needle */
        char        nchar = *needle;

        hptr = start_ptr;
        while (hptr < haystack_end)
        {
            if (*hptr == nchar)
                return (char *) hptr;
            hptr++;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        const char *needle_last = &needle[needle_len - 1];

        /* Start at startpos plus the length of the needle */
        hptr = start_ptr + needle_len - 1;
        while (hptr < haystack_end)
        {
            /* Match the needle scanning *backward* */
            const char *nptr;
            const char *p;

            nptr = needle_last;
            p = hptr;
            while (*nptr == *p)
            {
                /* Matched it all?  If so, return 1-based position */
                if (nptr == needle)
                    return (char *) p;
                nptr--, p--;
            }

            /*
             * No match, so use the haystack char at hptr to decide how far to
             * advance.  If the needle had any occurrence of that character
             * (or more precisely, one sharing the same skiptable entry)
             * before its last character, then we advance far enough to align
             * the last such needle character with that haystack position.
             * Otherwise we can advance by the whole needle length.
             */
            hptr += state->skiptable[(unsigned char) *hptr & skiptablemask];
        }
    }

    return 0;                   /* not found */
}

/*
 * Return a pointer to the current match.
 *
 * The returned pointer points into correct position in the original
 * the haystack string.
 */
static char *
text_position_get_match_ptr(TextPositionState *state)
{
    return state->last_match;
}

/*
 * Return the offset of the current match.
 *
 * The offset is in characters, 1-based.
 */
static int
text_position_get_match_pos(TextPositionState *state)
{
    if (!state->is_multibyte)
        return state->last_match - state->str1 + 1;
    else
    {
        /* Convert the byte position to char position. */
        while (state->refpoint < state->last_match)
        {
            state->refpoint += pg_mblen(state->refpoint);
            state->refpos++;
        }
        Assert(state->refpoint == state->last_match);
        return state->refpos + 1;
    }
}

static void
text_position_cleanup(TextPositionState *state)
{
    /* no cleanup needed */
}

static void
check_collation_set(Oid collid)
{
    if (!OidIsValid(collid))
    {
        /*
         * This typically means that the parser could not resolve a conflict
         * of implicit collations, so report it that way.
         */
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INDETERMINATE_COLLATION),
                 errmsg("could not determine which collation to use for string comparison"),
                 errhint("Use the COLLATE clause to set the collation explicitly.")));
    }
}

/* varstr_cmp()
 * Comparison function for text strings with given lengths.
 * Includes locale support, but must copy strings to temporary memory
 *  to allow null-termination for inputs to strcoll().
 * Returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero, indicating
 * whether arg1 is less than, equal to, or greater than arg2.
 */
int
varstr_cmp(const char *arg1, int len1, const char *arg2, int len2, Oid collid)
{
    int         result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    /*
     * Unfortunately, there is no strncoll(), so in the non-C locale case we
     * have to do some memory copying.  This turns out to be significantly
     * slower, so we optimize the case where LC_COLLATE is C.  We also try to
     * optimize relatively-short strings by avoiding palloc/pfree overhead.
     */
    if (lc_collate_is_c(collid))
    {
        result = memcmp(arg1, arg2, Min(len1, len2));
        if ((result == 0) && (len1 != len2))
            result = (len1 < len2) ? -1 : 1;
    }
    else
    {
        char        a1buf[TEXTBUFLEN];
        char        a2buf[TEXTBUFLEN];
        char       *a1p,
                   *a2p;
        pg_locale_t mylocale = 0;

        if (collid != DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID)
            mylocale = pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid);

        /*
         * memcmp() can't tell us which of two unequal strings sorts first,
         * but it's a cheap way to tell if they're equal.  Testing shows that
         * memcmp() followed by strcoll() is only trivially slower than
         * strcoll() by itself, so we don't lose much if this doesn't work out
         * very often, and if it does - for example, because there are many
         * equal strings in the input - then we win big by avoiding expensive
         * collation-aware comparisons.
         */
        if (len1 == len2 && memcmp(arg1, arg2, len1) == 0)
            return 0;

#ifdef WIN32
        /* Win32 does not have UTF-8, so we need to map to UTF-16 */
        if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8
            && (!mylocale || mylocale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_LIBC))
        {
            int         a1len;
            int         a2len;
            int         r;

            if (len1 >= TEXTBUFLEN / 2)
            {
                a1len = len1 * 2 + 2;
                a1p = palloc(a1len);
            }
            else
            {
                a1len = TEXTBUFLEN;
                a1p = a1buf;
            }
            if (len2 >= TEXTBUFLEN / 2)
            {
                a2len = len2 * 2 + 2;
                a2p = palloc(a2len);
            }
            else
            {
                a2len = TEXTBUFLEN;
                a2p = a2buf;
            }

            /* stupid Microsloth API does not work for zero-length input */
            if (len1 == 0)
                r = 0;
            else
            {
                r = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_UTF8, 0, arg1, len1,
                                        (LPWSTR) a1p, a1len / 2);
                if (!r)
                    ereport(ERROR,
                            (errmsg("could not convert string to UTF-16: error code %lu",
                                    GetLastError())));
            }
            ((LPWSTR) a1p)[r] = 0;

            if (len2 == 0)
                r = 0;
            else
            {
                r = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_UTF8, 0, arg2, len2,
                                        (LPWSTR) a2p, a2len / 2);
                if (!r)
                    ereport(ERROR,
                            (errmsg("could not convert string to UTF-16: error code %lu",
                                    GetLastError())));
            }
            ((LPWSTR) a2p)[r] = 0;

            errno = 0;
#ifdef HAVE_LOCALE_T
            if (mylocale)
                result = wcscoll_l((LPWSTR) a1p, (LPWSTR) a2p, mylocale->info.lt);
            else
#endif
                result = wcscoll((LPWSTR) a1p, (LPWSTR) a2p);
            if (result == 2147483647)   /* _NLSCMPERROR; missing from mingw
                                         * headers */
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errmsg("could not compare Unicode strings: %m")));

            /* Break tie if necessary. */
            if (result == 0 &&
                (!mylocale || mylocale->deterministic))
            {
                result = memcmp(arg1, arg2, Min(len1, len2));
                if ((result == 0) && (len1 != len2))
                    result = (len1 < len2) ? -1 : 1;
            }

            if (a1p != a1buf)
                pfree(a1p);
            if (a2p != a2buf)
                pfree(a2p);

            return result;
        }
#endif                          /* WIN32 */

        if (len1 >= TEXTBUFLEN)
            a1p = (char *) palloc(len1 + 1);
        else
            a1p = a1buf;
        if (len2 >= TEXTBUFLEN)
            a2p = (char *) palloc(len2 + 1);
        else
            a2p = a2buf;

        memcpy(a1p, arg1, len1);
        a1p[len1] = '\0';
        memcpy(a2p, arg2, len2);
        a2p[len2] = '\0';

        if (mylocale)
        {
            if (mylocale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU)
            {
#ifdef USE_ICU
#ifdef HAVE_UCOL_STRCOLLUTF8
                if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8)
                {
                    UErrorCode  status;

                    status = U_ZERO_ERROR;
                    result = ucol_strcollUTF8(mylocale->info.icu.ucol,
                                              arg1, len1,
                                              arg2, len2,
                                              &status);
                    if (U_FAILURE(status))
                        ereport(ERROR,
                                (errmsg("collation failed: %s", u_errorName(status))));
                }
                else
#endif
                {
                    int32_t     ulen1,
                                ulen2;
                    UChar      *uchar1,
                               *uchar2;

                    ulen1 = icu_to_uchar(&uchar1, arg1, len1);
                    ulen2 = icu_to_uchar(&uchar2, arg2, len2);

                    result = ucol_strcoll(mylocale->info.icu.ucol,
                                          uchar1, ulen1,
                                          uchar2, ulen2);

                    pfree(uchar1);
                    pfree(uchar2);
                }
#else                           /* not USE_ICU */
                /* shouldn't happen */
                elog(ERROR, "unsupported collprovider: %c", mylocale->provider);
#endif                          /* not USE_ICU */
            }
            else
            {
#ifdef HAVE_LOCALE_T
                result = strcoll_l(a1p, a2p, mylocale->info.lt);
#else
                /* shouldn't happen */
                elog(ERROR, "unsupported collprovider: %c", mylocale->provider);
#endif
            }
        }
        else
            result = strcoll(a1p, a2p);

        /* Break tie if necessary. */
        if (result == 0 &&
            (!mylocale || mylocale->deterministic))
            result = strcmp(a1p, a2p);

        if (a1p != a1buf)
            pfree(a1p);
        if (a2p != a2buf)
            pfree(a2p);
    }

    return result;
}

/* text_cmp()
 * Internal comparison function for text strings.
 * Returns -1, 0 or 1
 */
static int
text_cmp(text *arg1, text *arg2, Oid collid)
{
    char       *a1p,
               *a2p;
    int         len1,
                len2;

    a1p = VARDATA_ANY(arg1);
    a2p = VARDATA_ANY(arg2);

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    return varstr_cmp(a1p, len1, a2p, len2, collid);
}

/*
 * Comparison functions for text strings.
 *
 * Note: btree indexes need these routines not to leak memory; therefore,
 * be careful to free working copies of toasted datums.  Most places don't
 * need to be so careful.
 */

Datum
texteq(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (lc_collate_is_c(collid) ||
        collid == DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID ||
        pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid)->deterministic)
    {
        Datum       arg1 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
        Datum       arg2 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(1);
        Size        len1,
                    len2;

        /*
         * Since we only care about equality or not-equality, we can avoid all
         * the expense of strcoll() here, and just do bitwise comparison.  In
         * fact, we don't even have to do a bitwise comparison if we can show
         * the lengths of the strings are unequal; which might save us from
         * having to detoast one or both values.
         */
        len1 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg1);
        len2 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg2);
        if (len1 != len2)
            result = false;
        else
        {
            text       *targ1 = DatumGetTextPP(arg1);
            text       *targ2 = DatumGetTextPP(arg2);

            result = (memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(targ1), VARDATA_ANY(targ2),
                             len1 - VARHDRSZ) == 0);

            PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ1, 0);
            PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ2, 1);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
        text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);

        result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, collid) == 0);

        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);
    }

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
textne(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (lc_collate_is_c(collid) ||
        collid == DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID ||
        pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid)->deterministic)
    {
        Datum       arg1 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
        Datum       arg2 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(1);
        Size        len1,
                    len2;

        /* See comment in texteq() */
        len1 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg1);
        len2 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg2);
        if (len1 != len2)
            result = true;
        else
        {
            text       *targ1 = DatumGetTextPP(arg1);
            text       *targ2 = DatumGetTextPP(arg2);

            result = (memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(targ1), VARDATA_ANY(targ2),
                             len1 - VARHDRSZ) != 0);

            PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ1, 0);
            PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ2, 1);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
        text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);

        result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, collid) != 0);

        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);
    }

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
text_lt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    bool        result;

    result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) < 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
text_le(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    bool        result;

    result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) <= 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
text_gt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    bool        result;

    result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) > 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
text_ge(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    bool        result;

    result = (text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) >= 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
text_starts_with(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       arg1 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
    Datum       arg2 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(1);
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    pg_locale_t mylocale = 0;
    bool        result;
    Size        len1,
                len2;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (!lc_collate_is_c(collid) && collid != DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID)
        mylocale = pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid);

    if (mylocale && !mylocale->deterministic)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
                 errmsg("nondeterministic collations are not supported for substring searches")));

    len1 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg1);
    len2 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg2);
    if (len2 > len1)
        result = false;
    else
    {
        text       *targ1 = text_substring(arg1, 1, len2, false);
        text       *targ2 = DatumGetTextPP(arg2);

        result = (memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(targ1), VARDATA_ANY(targ2),
                         VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(targ2)) == 0);

        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ1, 0);
        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(targ2, 1);
    }

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
bttextcmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int32       result;

    result = text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_INT32(result);
}

Datum
bttextsortsupport(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    SortSupport ssup = (SortSupport) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         collid = ssup->ssup_collation;
    MemoryContext oldcontext;

    oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(ssup->ssup_cxt);

    /* Use generic string SortSupport */
    varstr_sortsupport(ssup, TEXTOID, collid);

    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}

/*
 * Generic sortsupport interface for character type's operator classes.
 * Includes locale support, and support for BpChar semantics (i.e. removing
 * trailing spaces before comparison).
 *
 * Relies on the assumption that text, VarChar, BpChar, and bytea all have the
 * same representation.  Callers that always use the C collation (e.g.
 * non-collatable type callers like bytea) may have NUL bytes in their strings;
 * this will not work with any other collation, though.
 */
void
varstr_sortsupport(SortSupport ssup, Oid typid, Oid collid)
{
    bool        abbreviate = ssup->abbreviate;
    bool        collate_c = false;
    VarStringSortSupport *sss;
    pg_locale_t locale = 0;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    /*
     * If possible, set ssup->comparator to a function which can be used to
     * directly compare two datums.  If we can do this, we'll avoid the
     * overhead of a trip through the fmgr layer for every comparison, which
     * can be substantial.
     *
     * Most typically, we'll set the comparator to varlenafastcmp_locale,
     * which uses strcoll() to perform comparisons.  We use that for the
     * BpChar case too, but type NAME uses namefastcmp_locale. However, if
     * LC_COLLATE = C, we can make things quite a bit faster with
     * varstrfastcmp_c, bpcharfastcmp_c, or namefastcmp_c, all of which use
     * memcmp() rather than strcoll().
     */
    if (lc_collate_is_c(collid))
    {
        if (typid == BPCHAROID)
            ssup->comparator = bpcharfastcmp_c;
        else if (typid == NAMEOID)
        {
            ssup->comparator = namefastcmp_c;
            /* Not supporting abbreviation with type NAME, for now */
            abbreviate = false;
        }
        else
            ssup->comparator = varstrfastcmp_c;

        collate_c = true;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * We need a collation-sensitive comparison.  To make things faster,
         * we'll figure out the collation based on the locale id and cache the
         * result.
         */
        if (collid != DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID)
            locale = pg_newlocale_from_collation(collid);

        /*
         * There is a further exception on Windows.  When the database
         * encoding is UTF-8 and we are not using the C collation, complex
         * hacks are required.  We don't currently have a comparator that
         * handles that case, so we fall back on the slow method of having the
         * sort code invoke bttextcmp() (in the case of text) via the fmgr
         * trampoline.  ICU locales work just the same on Windows, however.
         */
#ifdef WIN32
        if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8 &&
            !(locale && locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU))
            return;
#endif

        /*
         * We use varlenafastcmp_locale except for type NAME.
         */
        if (typid == NAMEOID)
        {
            ssup->comparator = namefastcmp_locale;
            /* Not supporting abbreviation with type NAME, for now */
            abbreviate = false;
        }
        else
            ssup->comparator = varlenafastcmp_locale;
    }

    /*
     * Unfortunately, it seems that abbreviation for non-C collations is
     * broken on many common platforms; testing of multiple versions of glibc
     * reveals that, for many locales, strcoll() and strxfrm() do not return
     * consistent results, which is fatal to this optimization.  While no
     * other libc other than Cygwin has so far been shown to have a problem,
     * we take the conservative course of action for right now and disable
     * this categorically.  (Users who are certain this isn't a problem on
     * their system can define TRUST_STRXFRM.)
     *
     * Even apart from the risk of broken locales, it's possible that there
     * are platforms where the use of abbreviated keys should be disabled at
     * compile time.  Having only 4 byte datums could make worst-case
     * performance drastically more likely, for example.  Moreover, macOS's
     * strxfrm() implementation is known to not effectively concentrate a
     * significant amount of entropy from the original string in earlier
     * transformed blobs.  It's possible that other supported platforms are
     * similarly encumbered.  So, if we ever get past disabling this
     * categorically, we may still want or need to disable it for particular
     * platforms.
     */
#ifndef TRUST_STRXFRM
    if (!collate_c && !(locale && locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU))
        abbreviate = false;
#endif

    /*
     * If we're using abbreviated keys, or if we're using a locale-aware
     * comparison, we need to initialize a VarStringSortSupport object. Both
     * cases will make use of the temporary buffers we initialize here for
     * scratch space (and to detect requirement for BpChar semantics from
     * caller), and the abbreviation case requires additional state.
     */
    if (abbreviate || !collate_c)
    {
        sss = palloc(sizeof(VarStringSortSupport));
        sss->buf1 = palloc(TEXTBUFLEN);
        sss->buflen1 = TEXTBUFLEN;
        sss->buf2 = palloc(TEXTBUFLEN);
        sss->buflen2 = TEXTBUFLEN;
        /* Start with invalid values */
        sss->last_len1 = -1;
        sss->last_len2 = -1;
        /* Initialize */
        sss->last_returned = 0;
        sss->locale = locale;

        /*
         * To avoid somehow confusing a strxfrm() blob and an original string,
         * constantly keep track of the variety of data that buf1 and buf2
         * currently contain.
         *
         * Comparisons may be interleaved with conversion calls.  Frequently,
         * conversions and comparisons are batched into two distinct phases,
         * but the correctness of caching cannot hinge upon this.  For
         * comparison caching, buffer state is only trusted if cache_blob is
         * found set to false, whereas strxfrm() caching only trusts the state
         * when cache_blob is found set to true.
         *
         * Arbitrarily initialize cache_blob to true.
         */
        sss->cache_blob = true;
        sss->collate_c = collate_c;
        sss->typid = typid;
        ssup->ssup_extra = sss;

        /*
         * If possible, plan to use the abbreviated keys optimization.  The
         * core code may switch back to authoritative comparator should
         * abbreviation be aborted.
         */
        if (abbreviate)
        {
            sss->prop_card = 0.20;
            initHyperLogLog(&sss->abbr_card, 10);
            initHyperLogLog(&sss->full_card, 10);
            ssup->abbrev_full_comparator = ssup->comparator;
            ssup->comparator = varstrcmp_abbrev;
            ssup->abbrev_converter = varstr_abbrev_convert;
            ssup->abbrev_abort = varstr_abbrev_abort;
        }
    }
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func (for C locale case)
 */
static int
varstrfastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    VarString  *arg1 = DatumGetVarStringPP(x);
    VarString  *arg2 = DatumGetVarStringPP(y);
    char       *a1p,
               *a2p;
    int         len1,
                len2,
                result;

    a1p = VARDATA_ANY(arg1);
    a2p = VARDATA_ANY(arg2);

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    result = memcmp(a1p, a2p, Min(len1, len2));
    if ((result == 0) && (len1 != len2))
        result = (len1 < len2) ? -1 : 1;

    /* We can't afford to leak memory here. */
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg1) != x)
        pfree(arg1);
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg2) != y)
        pfree(arg2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func (for BpChar C locale case)
 *
 * BpChar outsources its sortsupport to this module.  Specialization for the
 * varstr_sortsupport BpChar case, modeled on
 * internal_bpchar_pattern_compare().
 */
static int
bpcharfastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    BpChar     *arg1 = DatumGetBpCharPP(x);
    BpChar     *arg2 = DatumGetBpCharPP(y);
    char       *a1p,
               *a2p;
    int         len1,
                len2,
                result;

    a1p = VARDATA_ANY(arg1);
    a2p = VARDATA_ANY(arg2);

    len1 = bpchartruelen(a1p, VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1));
    len2 = bpchartruelen(a2p, VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2));

    result = memcmp(a1p, a2p, Min(len1, len2));
    if ((result == 0) && (len1 != len2))
        result = (len1 < len2) ? -1 : 1;

    /* We can't afford to leak memory here. */
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg1) != x)
        pfree(arg1);
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg2) != y)
        pfree(arg2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func (for NAME C locale case)
 */
static int
namefastcmp_c(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    Name        arg1 = DatumGetName(x);
    Name        arg2 = DatumGetName(y);

    return strncmp(NameStr(*arg1), NameStr(*arg2), NAMEDATALEN);
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func (for locale case with all varlena types)
 */
static int
varlenafastcmp_locale(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    VarString  *arg1 = DatumGetVarStringPP(x);
    VarString  *arg2 = DatumGetVarStringPP(y);
    char       *a1p,
               *a2p;
    int         len1,
                len2,
                result;

    a1p = VARDATA_ANY(arg1);
    a2p = VARDATA_ANY(arg2);

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    result = varstrfastcmp_locale(a1p, len1, a2p, len2, ssup);

    /* We can't afford to leak memory here. */
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg1) != x)
        pfree(arg1);
    if (PointerGetDatum(arg2) != y)
        pfree(arg2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func (for locale case with NAME type)
 */
static int
namefastcmp_locale(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    Name        arg1 = DatumGetName(x);
    Name        arg2 = DatumGetName(y);

    return varstrfastcmp_locale(NameStr(*arg1), strlen(NameStr(*arg1)),
                                NameStr(*arg2), strlen(NameStr(*arg2)),
                                ssup);
}

/*
 * sortsupport comparison func for locale cases
 */
static int
varstrfastcmp_locale(char *a1p, int len1, char *a2p, int len2, SortSupport ssup)
{
    VarStringSortSupport *sss = (VarStringSortSupport *) ssup->ssup_extra;
    int         result;
    bool        arg1_match;

    /* Fast pre-check for equality, as discussed in varstr_cmp() */
    if (len1 == len2 && memcmp(a1p, a2p, len1) == 0)
    {
        /*
         * No change in buf1 or buf2 contents, so avoid changing last_len1 or
         * last_len2.  Existing contents of buffers might still be used by
         * next call.
         *
         * It's fine to allow the comparison of BpChar padding bytes here,
         * even though that implies that the memcmp() will usually be
         * performed for BpChar callers (though multibyte characters could
         * still prevent that from occurring).  The memcmp() is still very
         * cheap, and BpChar's funny semantics have us remove trailing spaces
         * (not limited to padding), so we need make no distinction between
         * padding space characters and "real" space characters.
         */
        return 0;
    }

    if (sss->typid == BPCHAROID)
    {
        /* Get true number of bytes, ignoring trailing spaces */
        len1 = bpchartruelen(a1p, len1);
        len2 = bpchartruelen(a2p, len2);
    }

    if (len1 >= sss->buflen1)
    {
        pfree(sss->buf1);
        sss->buflen1 = Max(len1 + 1, Min(sss->buflen1 * 2, MaxAllocSize));
        sss->buf1 = MemoryContextAlloc(ssup->ssup_cxt, sss->buflen1);
    }
    if (len2 >= sss->buflen2)
    {
        pfree(sss->buf2);
        sss->buflen2 = Max(len2 + 1, Min(sss->buflen2 * 2, MaxAllocSize));
        sss->buf2 = MemoryContextAlloc(ssup->ssup_cxt, sss->buflen2);
    }

    /*
     * We're likely to be asked to compare the same strings repeatedly, and
     * memcmp() is so much cheaper than strcoll() that it pays to try to cache
     * comparisons, even though in general there is no reason to think that
     * that will work out (every string datum may be unique).  Caching does
     * not slow things down measurably when it doesn't work out, and can speed
     * things up by rather a lot when it does.  In part, this is because the
     * memcmp() compares data from cachelines that are needed in L1 cache even
     * when the last comparison's result cannot be reused.
     */
    arg1_match = true;
    if (len1 != sss->last_len1 || memcmp(sss->buf1, a1p, len1) != 0)
    {
        arg1_match = false;
        memcpy(sss->buf1, a1p, len1);
        sss->buf1[len1] = '\0';
        sss->last_len1 = len1;
    }

    /*
     * If we're comparing the same two strings as last time, we can return the
     * same answer without calling strcoll() again.  This is more likely than
     * it seems (at least with moderate to low cardinality sets), because
     * quicksort compares the same pivot against many values.
     */
    if (len2 != sss->last_len2 || memcmp(sss->buf2, a2p, len2) != 0)
    {
        memcpy(sss->buf2, a2p, len2);
        sss->buf2[len2] = '\0';
        sss->last_len2 = len2;
    }
    else if (arg1_match && !sss->cache_blob)
    {
        /* Use result cached following last actual strcoll() call */
        return sss->last_returned;
    }

    if (sss->locale)
    {
        if (sss->locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU)
        {
#ifdef USE_ICU
#ifdef HAVE_UCOL_STRCOLLUTF8
            if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8)
            {
                UErrorCode  status;

                status = U_ZERO_ERROR;
                result = ucol_strcollUTF8(sss->locale->info.icu.ucol,
                                          a1p, len1,
                                          a2p, len2,
                                          &status);
                if (U_FAILURE(status))
                    ereport(ERROR,
                            (errmsg("collation failed: %s", u_errorName(status))));
            }
            else
#endif
            {
                int32_t     ulen1,
                            ulen2;
                UChar      *uchar1,
                           *uchar2;

                ulen1 = icu_to_uchar(&uchar1, a1p, len1);
                ulen2 = icu_to_uchar(&uchar2, a2p, len2);

                result = ucol_strcoll(sss->locale->info.icu.ucol,
                                      uchar1, ulen1,
                                      uchar2, ulen2);

                pfree(uchar1);
                pfree(uchar2);
            }
#else                           /* not USE_ICU */
            /* shouldn't happen */
            elog(ERROR, "unsupported collprovider: %c", sss->locale->provider);
#endif                          /* not USE_ICU */
        }
        else
        {
#ifdef HAVE_LOCALE_T
            result = strcoll_l(sss->buf1, sss->buf2, sss->locale->info.lt);
#else
            /* shouldn't happen */
            elog(ERROR, "unsupported collprovider: %c", sss->locale->provider);
#endif
        }
    }
    else
        result = strcoll(sss->buf1, sss->buf2);

    /* Break tie if necessary. */
    if (result == 0 &&
        (!sss->locale || sss->locale->deterministic))
        result = strcmp(sss->buf1, sss->buf2);

    /* Cache result, perhaps saving an expensive strcoll() call next time */
    sss->cache_blob = false;
    sss->last_returned = result;
    return result;
}

/*
 * Abbreviated key comparison func
 */
static int
varstrcmp_abbrev(Datum x, Datum y, SortSupport ssup)
{
    /*
     * When 0 is returned, the core system will call varstrfastcmp_c()
     * (bpcharfastcmp_c() in BpChar case) or varlenafastcmp_locale().  Even a
     * strcmp() on two non-truncated strxfrm() blobs cannot indicate *equality*
     * authoritatively, for the same reason that there is a strcoll()
     * tie-breaker call to strcmp() in varstr_cmp().
     */
    if (x > y)
        return 1;
    else if (x == y)
        return 0;
    else
        return -1;
}

/*
 * Conversion routine for sortsupport.  Converts original to abbreviated key
 * representation.  Our encoding strategy is simple -- pack the first 8 bytes
 * of a strxfrm() blob into a Datum (on little-endian machines, the 8 bytes are
 * stored in reverse order), and treat it as an unsigned integer.  When the "C"
 * locale is used, or in case of bytea, just memcpy() from original instead.
 */
static Datum
varstr_abbrev_convert(Datum original, SortSupport ssup)
{
    VarStringSortSupport *sss = (VarStringSortSupport *) ssup->ssup_extra;
    VarString  *authoritative = DatumGetVarStringPP(original);
    char       *authoritative_data = VARDATA_ANY(authoritative);

    /* working state */
    Datum       res;
    char       *pres;
    int         len;
    uint32      hash;

    pres = (char *) &res;
    /* memset(), so any non-overwritten bytes are NUL */
    memset(pres, 0, sizeof(Datum));
    len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(authoritative);

    /* Get number of bytes, ignoring trailing spaces */
    if (sss->typid == BPCHAROID)
        len = bpchartruelen(authoritative_data, len);

    /*
     * If we're using the C collation, use memcpy(), rather than strxfrm(), to
     * abbreviate keys.  The full comparator for the C locale is always
     * memcmp().  It would be incorrect to allow bytea callers (callers that
     * always force the C collation -- bytea isn't a collatable type, but this
     * approach is convenient) to use strxfrm().  This is because bytea
     * strings may contain NUL bytes.  Besides, this should be faster, too.
     *
     * More generally, it's okay that bytea callers can have NUL bytes in
     * strings because varstrcmp_abbrev() need not make a distinction between
     * terminating NUL bytes, and NUL bytes representing actual NULs in the
     * authoritative representation.  Hopefully a comparison at or past one
     * abbreviated key's terminating NUL byte will resolve the comparison
     * without consulting the authoritative representation; specifically, some
     * later non-NUL byte in the longer string can resolve the comparison
     * against a subsequent terminating NUL in the shorter string.  There will
     * usually be what is effectively a "length-wise" resolution there and
     * then.
     *
     * If that doesn't work out -- if all bytes in the longer string
     * positioned at or past the offset of the smaller string's (first)
     * terminating NUL are actually representative of NUL bytes in the
     * authoritative binary string (perhaps with some *terminating* NUL bytes
     * towards the end of the longer string iff it happens to still be small)
     * -- then an authoritative tie-breaker will happen, and do the right
     * thing: explicitly consider string length.
     */
    if (sss->collate_c)
        memcpy(pres, authoritative_data, Min(len, sizeof(Datum)));
    else
    {
        Size        bsize;
#ifdef USE_ICU
        int32_t     ulen = -1;
        UChar      *uchar = NULL;
#endif

        /*
         * We're not using the C collation, so fall back on strxfrm or ICU
         * analogs.
         */

        /* By convention, we use buffer 1 to store and NUL-terminate */
        if (len >= sss->buflen1)
        {
            pfree(sss->buf1);
            sss->buflen1 = Max(len + 1, Min(sss->buflen1 * 2, MaxAllocSize));
            sss->buf1 = palloc(sss->buflen1);
        }

        /* Might be able to reuse strxfrm() blob from last call */
        if (sss->last_len1 == len && sss->cache_blob &&
            memcmp(sss->buf1, authoritative_data, len) == 0)
        {
            memcpy(pres, sss->buf2, Min(sizeof(Datum), sss->last_len2));
            /* No change affecting cardinality, so no hashing required */
            goto done;
        }

        memcpy(sss->buf1, authoritative_data, len);

        /*
         * Just like strcoll(), strxfrm() expects a NUL-terminated string. Not
         * necessary for ICU, but doesn't hurt.
         */
        sss->buf1[len] = '\0';
        sss->last_len1 = len;

#ifdef USE_ICU
        /* When using ICU and not UTF8, convert string to UChar. */
        if (sss->locale && sss->locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU &&
            GetDatabaseEncoding() != PG_UTF8)
            ulen = icu_to_uchar(&uchar, sss->buf1, len);
#endif

        /*
         * Loop: Call strxfrm() or ucol_getSortKey(), possibly enlarge buffer,
         * and try again.  Both of these functions have the result buffer
         * content undefined if the result did not fit, so we need to retry
         * until everything fits, even though we only need the first few bytes
         * in the end.  When using ucol_nextSortKeyPart(), however, we only
         * ask for as many bytes as we actually need.
         */
        for (;;)
        {
#ifdef USE_ICU
            if (sss->locale && sss->locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_ICU)
            {
                /*
                 * When using UTF8, use the iteration interface so we only
                 * need to produce as many bytes as we actually need.
                 */
                if (GetDatabaseEncoding() == PG_UTF8)
                {
                    UCharIterator iter;
                    uint32_t    state[2];
                    UErrorCode  status;

                    uiter_setUTF8(&iter, sss->buf1, len);
                    state[0] = state[1] = 0;    /* won't need that again */
                    status = U_ZERO_ERROR;
                    bsize = ucol_nextSortKeyPart(sss->locale->info.icu.ucol,
                                                 &iter,
                                                 state,
                                                 (uint8_t *) sss->buf2,
                                                 Min(sizeof(Datum), sss->buflen2),
                                                 &status);
                    if (U_FAILURE(status))
                        ereport(ERROR,
                                (errmsg("sort key generation failed: %s",
                                        u_errorName(status))));
                }
                else
                    bsize = ucol_getSortKey(sss->locale->info.icu.ucol,
                                            uchar, ulen,
                                            (uint8_t *) sss->buf2, sss->buflen2);
            }
            else
#endif
#ifdef HAVE_LOCALE_T
            if (sss->locale && sss->locale->provider == COLLPROVIDER_LIBC)
                bsize = strxfrm_l(sss->buf2, sss->buf1,
                                  sss->buflen2, sss->locale->info.lt);
            else
#endif
                bsize = strxfrm(sss->buf2, sss->buf1, sss->buflen2);

            sss->last_len2 = bsize;
            if (bsize < sss->buflen2)
                break;

            /*
             * Grow buffer and retry.
             */
            pfree(sss->buf2);
            sss->buflen2 = Max(bsize + 1,
                               Min(sss->buflen2 * 2, MaxAllocSize));
            sss->buf2 = palloc(sss->buflen2);
        }

        /*
         * Every Datum byte is always compared.  This is safe because the
         * strxfrm() blob is itself NUL terminated, leaving no danger of
         * misinterpreting any NUL bytes not intended to be interpreted as
         * logically representing termination.
         *
         * (Actually, even if there were NUL bytes in the blob it would be
         * okay.  See remarks on bytea case above.)
         */
        memcpy(pres, sss->buf2, Min(sizeof(Datum), bsize));

#ifdef USE_ICU
        if (uchar)
            pfree(uchar);
#endif
    }

    /*
     * Maintain approximate cardinality of both abbreviated keys and original,
     * authoritative keys using HyperLogLog.  Used as cheap insurance against
     * the worst case, where we do many string transformations for no saving
     * in full strcoll()-based comparisons.  These statistics are used by
     * varstr_abbrev_abort().
     *
     * First, Hash key proper, or a significant fraction of it.  Mix in length
     * in order to compensate for cases where differences are past
     * PG_CACHE_LINE_SIZE bytes, so as to limit the overhead of hashing.
     */
    hash = DatumGetUInt32(hash_any((unsigned char *) authoritative_data,
                                   Min(len, PG_CACHE_LINE_SIZE)));

    if (len > PG_CACHE_LINE_SIZE)
        hash ^= DatumGetUInt32(hash_uint32((uint32) len));

    addHyperLogLog(&sss->full_card, hash);

    /* Hash abbreviated key */
#if SIZEOF_DATUM == 8
    {
        uint32      lohalf,
                    hihalf;

        lohalf = (uint32) res;
        hihalf = (uint32) (res >> 32);
        hash = DatumGetUInt32(hash_uint32(lohalf ^ hihalf));
    }
#else                           /* SIZEOF_DATUM != 8 */
    hash = DatumGetUInt32(hash_uint32((uint32) res));
#endif

    addHyperLogLog(&sss->abbr_card, hash);

    /* Cache result, perhaps saving an expensive strxfrm() call next time */
    sss->cache_blob = true;
done:

    /*
     * Byteswap on little-endian machines.
     *
     * This is needed so that varstrcmp_abbrev() (an unsigned integer 3-way
     * comparator) works correctly on all platforms.  If we didn't do this,
     * the comparator would have to call memcmp() with a pair of pointers to
     * the first byte of each abbreviated key, which is slower.
     */
    res = DatumBigEndianToNative(res);

    /* Don't leak memory here */
    if (PointerGetDatum(authoritative) != original)
        pfree(authoritative);

    return res;
}

/*
 * Callback for estimating effectiveness of abbreviated key optimization, using
 * heuristic rules.  Returns value indicating if the abbreviation optimization
 * should be aborted, based on its projected effectiveness.
 */
static bool
varstr_abbrev_abort(int memtupcount, SortSupport ssup)
{
    VarStringSortSupport *sss = (VarStringSortSupport *) ssup->ssup_extra;
    double      abbrev_distinct,
                key_distinct;

    Assert(ssup->abbreviate);

    /* Have a little patience */
    if (memtupcount < 100)
        return false;

    abbrev_distinct = estimateHyperLogLog(&sss->abbr_card);
    key_distinct = estimateHyperLogLog(&sss->full_card);

    /*
     * Clamp cardinality estimates to at least one distinct value.  While
     * NULLs are generally disregarded, if only NULL values were seen so far,
     * that might misrepresent costs if we failed to clamp.
     */
    if (abbrev_distinct <= 1.0)
        abbrev_distinct = 1.0;

    if (key_distinct <= 1.0)
        key_distinct = 1.0;

    /*
     * In the worst case all abbreviated keys are identical, while at the same
     * time there are differences within full key strings not captured in
     * abbreviations.
     */
#ifdef TRACE_SORT
    if (trace_sort)
    {
        double      norm_abbrev_card = abbrev_distinct / (double) memtupcount;

        elog(LOG, "varstr_abbrev: abbrev_distinct after %d: %f "
             "(key_distinct: %f, norm_abbrev_card: %f, prop_card: %f)",
             memtupcount, abbrev_distinct, key_distinct, norm_abbrev_card,
             sss->prop_card);
    }
#endif

    /*
     * If the number of distinct abbreviated keys approximately matches the
     * number of distinct authoritative original keys, that's reason enough to
     * proceed.  We can win even with a very low cardinality set if most
     * tie-breakers only memcmp().  This is by far the most important
     * consideration.
     *
     * While comparisons that are resolved at the abbreviated key level are
     * considerably cheaper than tie-breakers resolved with memcmp(), both of
     * those two outcomes are so much cheaper than a full strcoll() once
     * sorting is underway that it doesn't seem worth it to weigh abbreviated
     * cardinality against the overall size of the set in order to more
     * accurately model costs.  Assume that an abbreviated comparison, and an
     * abbreviated comparison with a cheap memcmp()-based authoritative
     * resolution are equivalent.
     */
    if (abbrev_distinct > key_distinct * sss->prop_card)
    {
        /*
         * When we have exceeded 10,000 tuples, decay required cardinality
         * aggressively for next call.
         *
         * This is useful because the number of comparisons required on
         * average increases at a linearithmic rate, and at roughly 10,000
         * tuples that factor will start to dominate over the linear costs of
         * string transformation (this is a conservative estimate).  The decay
         * rate is chosen to be a little less aggressive than halving -- which
         * (since we're called at points at which memtupcount has doubled)
         * would never see the cost model actually abort past the first call
         * following a decay.  This decay rate is mostly a precaution against
         * a sudden, violent swing in how well abbreviated cardinality tracks
         * full key cardinality.  The decay also serves to prevent a marginal
         * case from being aborted too late, when too much has already been
         * invested in string transformation.
         *
         * It's possible for sets of several million distinct strings with
         * mere tens of thousands of distinct abbreviated keys to still
         * benefit very significantly.  This will generally occur provided
         * each abbreviated key is a proxy for a roughly uniform number of the
         * set's full keys. If it isn't so, we hope to catch that early and
         * abort.  If it isn't caught early, by the time the problem is
         * apparent it's probably not worth aborting.
         */
        if (memtupcount > 10000)
            sss->prop_card *= 0.65;

        return false;
    }

    /*
     * Abort abbreviation strategy.
     *
     * The worst case, where all abbreviated keys are identical while all
     * original strings differ will typically only see a regression of about
     * 10% in execution time for small to medium sized lists of strings.
     * Whereas on modern CPUs where cache stalls are the dominant cost, we can
     * often expect very large improvements, particularly with sets of strings
     * of moderately high to high abbreviated cardinality.  There is little to
     * lose but much to gain, which our strategy reflects.
     */
#ifdef TRACE_SORT
    if (trace_sort)
        elog(LOG, "varstr_abbrev: aborted abbreviation at %d "
             "(abbrev_distinct: %f, key_distinct: %f, prop_card: %f)",
             memtupcount, abbrev_distinct, key_distinct, sss->prop_card);
#endif

    return true;
}

Datum
text_larger(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    text       *result;

    result = ((text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) > 0) ? arg1 : arg2);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}

Datum
text_smaller(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    text       *result;

    result = ((text_cmp(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION()) < 0) ? arg1 : arg2);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}


/*
 * Cross-type comparison functions for types text and name.
 */

Datum
nameeqtext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Name        arg1 = PG_GETARG_NAME(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    size_t      len1 = strlen(NameStr(*arg1));
    size_t      len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (collid == C_COLLATION_OID)
        result = (len1 == len2 &&
                  memcmp(NameStr(*arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), len1) == 0);
    else
        result = (varstr_cmp(NameStr(*arg1), len1,
                             VARDATA_ANY(arg2), len2,
                             collid) == 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
texteqname(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    Name        arg2 = PG_GETARG_NAME(1);
    size_t      len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    size_t      len2 = strlen(NameStr(*arg2));
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (collid == C_COLLATION_OID)
        result = (len1 == len2 &&
                  memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), NameStr(*arg2), len1) == 0);
    else
        result = (varstr_cmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), len1,
                             NameStr(*arg2), len2,
                             collid) == 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
namenetext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Name        arg1 = PG_GETARG_NAME(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    size_t      len1 = strlen(NameStr(*arg1));
    size_t      len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (collid == C_COLLATION_OID)
        result = !(len1 == len2 &&
                   memcmp(NameStr(*arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), len1) == 0);
    else
        result = !(varstr_cmp(NameStr(*arg1), len1,
                              VARDATA_ANY(arg2), len2,
                              collid) == 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
textnename(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    Name        arg2 = PG_GETARG_NAME(1);
    size_t      len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    size_t      len2 = strlen(NameStr(*arg2));
    Oid         collid = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    bool        result;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (collid == C_COLLATION_OID)
        result = !(len1 == len2 &&
                   memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), NameStr(*arg2), len1) == 0);
    else
        result = !(varstr_cmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), len1,
                              NameStr(*arg2), len2,
                              collid) == 0);

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
btnametextcmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Name        arg1 = PG_GETARG_NAME(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int32       result;

    result = varstr_cmp(NameStr(*arg1), strlen(NameStr(*arg1)),
                        VARDATA_ANY(arg2), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2),
                        PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_INT32(result);
}

Datum
bttextnamecmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    Name        arg2 = PG_GETARG_NAME(1);
    int32       result;

    result = varstr_cmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1),
                        NameStr(*arg2), strlen(NameStr(*arg2)),
                        PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);

    PG_RETURN_INT32(result);
}

#define CmpCall(cmpfunc) \
    DatumGetInt32(DirectFunctionCall2Coll(cmpfunc, \
                                          PG_GET_COLLATION(), \
                                          PG_GETARG_DATUM(0), \
                                          PG_GETARG_DATUM(1)))

Datum
namelttext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(btnametextcmp) < 0);
}

Datum
nameletext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(btnametextcmp) <= 0);
}

Datum
namegttext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(btnametextcmp) > 0);
}

Datum
namegetext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(btnametextcmp) >= 0);
}

Datum
textltname(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(bttextnamecmp) < 0);
}

Datum
textlename(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(bttextnamecmp) <= 0);
}

Datum
textgtname(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(bttextnamecmp) > 0);
}

Datum
textgename(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BOOL(CmpCall(bttextnamecmp) >= 0);
}

#undef CmpCall


/*
 * The following operators support character-by-character comparison
 * of text datums, to allow building indexes suitable for LIKE clauses.
 * Note that the regular texteq/textne comparison operators, and regular
 * support functions 1 and 2 with "C" collation are assumed to be
 * compatible with these!
 */

static int
internal_text_pattern_compare(text *arg1, text *arg2, Oid collid)
{
    int         result;
    int         len1,
                len2;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    /*
     * XXX We cannot use a text_pattern_ops index for nondeterministic
     * collations, because these operators intentionally ignore the collation.
     * However, the planner has no way to know that, so it might choose such
     * an index for an "=" clause, which would lead to wrong results.  This
     * check here doesn't prevent choosing the index, but it will at least
     * error out if the index is chosen.  A text_pattern_ops index on a column
     * with nondeterministic collation is pretty useless anyway, since LIKE
     * etc. won't work there either.  A future possibility would be to
     * annotate the operator class or its members in the catalog to avoid the
     * index.  Another alternative is to stay away from the *_pattern_ops
     * operator classes and prefer creating LIKE-supporting indexes with
     * COLLATE "C".
     */
    if (!get_collation_isdeterministic(collid))
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
                 errmsg("nondeterministic collations are not supported for operator class \"%s\"",
                        "text_pattern_ops")));

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    result = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));
    if (result != 0)
        return result;
    else if (len1 < len2)
        return -1;
    else if (len1 > len2)
        return 1;
    else
        return 0;
}


Datum
text_pattern_lt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         result;

    result = internal_text_pattern_compare(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result < 0);
}


Datum
text_pattern_le(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         result;

    result = internal_text_pattern_compare(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result <= 0);
}


Datum
text_pattern_ge(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         result;

    result = internal_text_pattern_compare(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result >= 0);
}


Datum
text_pattern_gt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         result;

    result = internal_text_pattern_compare(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result > 0);
}


Datum
bttext_pattern_cmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         result;

    result = internal_text_pattern_compare(arg1, arg2, PG_GET_COLLATION());

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_INT32(result);
}


Datum
bttext_pattern_sortsupport(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    SortSupport ssup = (SortSupport) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         collid = ssup->ssup_collation;
    MemoryContext oldcontext;

    check_collation_set(collid);

    if (!get_collation_isdeterministic(collid))
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
                 errmsg("nondeterministic collations are not supported for operator class \"%s\"",
                        "text_pattern_ops")));

    oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(ssup->ssup_cxt);

    /* Use generic string SortSupport, forcing "C" collation */
    varstr_sortsupport(ssup, TEXTOID, C_COLLATION_OID);

    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}


/*-------------------------------------------------------------
 * byteaoctetlen
 *
 * get the number of bytes contained in an instance of type 'bytea'
 *-------------------------------------------------------------
 */
Datum
byteaoctetlen(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       str = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);

    /* We need not detoast the input at all */
    PG_RETURN_INT32(toast_raw_datum_size(str) - VARHDRSZ);
}

/*
 * byteacat -
 *    takes two bytea* and returns a bytea* that is the concatenation of
 *    the two.
 *
 * Cloned from textcat and modified as required.
 */
Datum
byteacat(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *t1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *t2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(bytea_catenate(t1, t2));
}

/*
 * bytea_catenate
 *  Guts of byteacat(), broken out so it can be used by other functions
 *
 * Arguments can be in short-header form, but not compressed or out-of-line
 */
static bytea *
bytea_catenate(bytea *t1, bytea *t2)
{
    bytea      *result;
    int         len1,
                len2,
                len;
    char       *ptr;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2);

    /* paranoia ... probably should throw error instead? */
    if (len1 < 0)
        len1 = 0;
    if (len2 < 0)
        len2 = 0;

    len = len1 + len2 + VARHDRSZ;
    result = (bytea *) palloc(len);

    /* Set size of result string... */
    SET_VARSIZE(result, len);

    /* Fill data field of result string... */
    ptr = VARDATA(result);
    if (len1 > 0)
        memcpy(ptr, VARDATA_ANY(t1), len1);
    if (len2 > 0)
        memcpy(ptr + len1, VARDATA_ANY(t2), len2);

    return result;
}

#define PG_STR_GET_BYTEA(str_) \
    DatumGetByteaPP(DirectFunctionCall1(byteain, CStringGetDatum(str_)))

/*
 * bytea_substr()
 * Return a substring starting at the specified position.
 * Cloned from text_substr and modified as required.
 *
 * Input:
 *  - string
 *  - starting position (is one-based)
 *  - string length (optional)
 *
 * If the starting position is zero or less, then return from the start of the string
 * adjusting the length to be consistent with the "negative start" per SQL.
 * If the length is less than zero, an ERROR is thrown. If no third argument
 * (length) is provided, the length to the end of the string is assumed.
 */
Datum
bytea_substr(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(bytea_substring(PG_GETARG_DATUM(0),
                                      PG_GETARG_INT32(1),
                                      PG_GETARG_INT32(2),
                                      false));
}

/*
 * bytea_substr_no_len -
 *    Wrapper to avoid opr_sanity failure due to
 *    one function accepting a different number of args.
 */
Datum
bytea_substr_no_len(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(bytea_substring(PG_GETARG_DATUM(0),
                                      PG_GETARG_INT32(1),
                                      -1,
                                      true));
}

static bytea *
bytea_substring(Datum str,
                int S,
                int L,
                bool length_not_specified)
{
    int         S1;             /* adjusted start position */
    int         L1;             /* adjusted substring length */

    S1 = Max(S, 1);

    if (length_not_specified)
    {
        /*
         * Not passed a length - DatumGetByteaPSlice() grabs everything to the
         * end of the string if we pass it a negative value for length.
         */
        L1 = -1;
    }
    else
    {
        /* end position */
        int         E = S + L;

        /*
         * A negative value for L is the only way for the end position to be
         * before the start. SQL99 says to throw an error.
         */
        if (E < S)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_SUBSTRING_ERROR),
                     errmsg("negative substring length not allowed")));

        /*
         * A zero or negative value for the end position can happen if the
         * start was negative or one. SQL99 says to return a zero-length
         * string.
         */
        if (E < 1)
            return PG_STR_GET_BYTEA("");

        L1 = E - S1;
    }

    /*
     * If the start position is past the end of the string, SQL99 says to
     * return a zero-length string -- DatumGetByteaPSlice() will do that for
     * us. Convert to zero-based starting position
     */
    return DatumGetByteaPSlice(str, S1 - 1, L1);
}

/*
 * byteaoverlay
 *  Replace specified substring of first string with second
 *
 * The SQL standard defines OVERLAY() in terms of substring and concatenation.
 * This code is a direct implementation of what the standard says.
 */
Datum
byteaoverlay(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *t1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *t2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         sp = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);    /* substring start position */
    int         sl = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);    /* substring length */

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(bytea_overlay(t1, t2, sp, sl));
}

Datum
byteaoverlay_no_len(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *t1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *t2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         sp = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);    /* substring start position */
    int         sl;

    sl = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2); /* defaults to length(t2) */
    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(bytea_overlay(t1, t2, sp, sl));
}

static bytea *
bytea_overlay(bytea *t1, bytea *t2, int sp, int sl)
{
    bytea      *result;
    bytea      *s1;
    bytea      *s2;
    int         sp_pl_sl;

    /*
     * Check for possible integer-overflow cases.  For negative sp, throw a
     * "substring length" error because that's what should be expected
     * according to the spec's definition of OVERLAY().
     */
    if (sp <= 0)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_SUBSTRING_ERROR),
                 errmsg("negative substring length not allowed")));
    if (pg_add_s32_overflow(sp, sl, &sp_pl_sl))
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
                 errmsg("integer out of range")));

    s1 = bytea_substring(PointerGetDatum(t1), 1, sp - 1, false);
    s2 = bytea_substring(PointerGetDatum(t1), sp_pl_sl, -1, true);
    result = bytea_catenate(s1, t2);
    result = bytea_catenate(result, s2);

    return result;
}

/*
 * byteapos -
 *    Return the position of the specified substring.
 *    Implements the SQL POSITION() function.
 * Cloned from textpos and modified as required.
 */
Datum
byteapos(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *t1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *t2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         pos;
    int         px,
                p;
    int         len1,
                len2;
    char       *p1,
               *p2;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t2);

    if (len2 <= 0)
        PG_RETURN_INT32(1);     /* result for empty pattern */

    p1 = VARDATA_ANY(t1);
    p2 = VARDATA_ANY(t2);

    pos = 0;
    px = (len1 - len2);
    for (p = 0; p <= px; p++)
    {
        if ((*p2 == *p1) && (memcmp(p1, p2, len2) == 0))
        {
            pos = p + 1;
            break;
        };
        p1++;
    };

    PG_RETURN_INT32(pos);
}

/*-------------------------------------------------------------
 * byteaGetByte
 *
 * this routine treats "bytea" as an array of bytes.
 * It returns the Nth byte (a number between 0 and 255).
 *-------------------------------------------------------------
 */
Datum
byteaGetByte(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *v = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    int32       n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
    int         len;
    int         byte;

    len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(v);

    if (n < 0 || n >= len)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_ARRAY_SUBSCRIPT_ERROR),
                 errmsg("index %d out of valid range, 0..%d",
                        n, len - 1)));

    byte = ((unsigned char *) VARDATA_ANY(v))[n];

    PG_RETURN_INT32(byte);
}

/*-------------------------------------------------------------
 * byteaGetBit
 *
 * This routine treats a "bytea" type like an array of bits.
 * It returns the value of the Nth bit (0 or 1).
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------
 */
Datum
byteaGetBit(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *v = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    int32       n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
    int         byteNo,
                bitNo;
    int         len;
    int         byte;

    len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(v);

    if (n < 0 || n >= len * 8)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_ARRAY_SUBSCRIPT_ERROR),
                 errmsg("index %d out of valid range, 0..%d",
                        n, len * 8 - 1)));

    byteNo = n / 8;
    bitNo = n % 8;

    byte = ((unsigned char *) VARDATA_ANY(v))[byteNo];

    if (byte & (1 << bitNo))
        PG_RETURN_INT32(1);
    else
        PG_RETURN_INT32(0);
}

/*-------------------------------------------------------------
 * byteaSetByte
 *
 * Given an instance of type 'bytea' creates a new one with
 * the Nth byte set to the given value.
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------
 */
Datum
byteaSetByte(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *res = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_P_COPY(0);
    int32       n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
    int32       newByte = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);
    int         len;

    len = VARSIZE(res) - VARHDRSZ;

    if (n < 0 || n >= len)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_ARRAY_SUBSCRIPT_ERROR),
                 errmsg("index %d out of valid range, 0..%d",
                        n, len - 1)));

    /*
     * Now set the byte.
     */
    ((unsigned char *) VARDATA(res))[n] = newByte;

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(res);
}

/*-------------------------------------------------------------
 * byteaSetBit
 *
 * Given an instance of type 'bytea' creates a new one with
 * the Nth bit set to the given value.
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------
 */
Datum
byteaSetBit(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *res = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_P_COPY(0);
    int32       n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
    int32       newBit = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);
    int         len;
    int         oldByte,
                newByte;
    int         byteNo,
                bitNo;

    len = VARSIZE(res) - VARHDRSZ;

    if (n < 0 || n >= len * 8)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_ARRAY_SUBSCRIPT_ERROR),
                 errmsg("index %d out of valid range, 0..%d",
                        n, len * 8 - 1)));

    byteNo = n / 8;
    bitNo = n % 8;

    /*
     * sanity check!
     */
    if (newBit != 0 && newBit != 1)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                 errmsg("new bit must be 0 or 1")));

    /*
     * Update the byte.
     */
    oldByte = ((unsigned char *) VARDATA(res))[byteNo];

    if (newBit == 0)
        newByte = oldByte & (~(1 << bitNo));
    else
        newByte = oldByte | (1 << bitNo);

    ((unsigned char *) VARDATA(res))[byteNo] = newByte;

    PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(res);
}


/* text_name()
 * Converts a text type to a Name type.
 */
Datum
text_name(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *s = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    Name        result;
    int         len;

    len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(s);

    /* Truncate oversize input */
    if (len >= NAMEDATALEN)
        len = pg_mbcliplen(VARDATA_ANY(s), len, NAMEDATALEN - 1);

    /* We use palloc0 here to ensure result is zero-padded */
    result = (Name) palloc0(NAMEDATALEN);
    memcpy(NameStr(*result), VARDATA_ANY(s), len);

    PG_RETURN_NAME(result);
}

/* name_text()
 * Converts a Name type to a text type.
 */
Datum
name_text(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Name        s = PG_GETARG_NAME(0);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(NameStr(*s)));
}


/*
 * textToQualifiedNameList - convert a text object to list of names
 *
 * This implements the input parsing needed by nextval() and other
 * functions that take a text parameter representing a qualified name.
 * We split the name at dots, downcase if not double-quoted, and
 * truncate names if they're too long.
 */
List *
textToQualifiedNameList(text *textval)
{
    char       *rawname;
    List       *result = NIL;
    List       *namelist;
    ListCell   *l;

    /* Convert to C string (handles possible detoasting). */
    /* Note we rely on being able to modify rawname below. */
    rawname = text_to_cstring(textval);

    if (!SplitIdentifierString(rawname, '.', &namelist))
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_NAME),
                 errmsg("invalid name syntax")));

    if (namelist == NIL)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_NAME),
                 errmsg("invalid name syntax")));

    foreach(l, namelist)
    {
        char       *curname = (char *) lfirst(l);

        result = lappend(result, makeString(pstrdup(curname)));
    }

    pfree(rawname);
    list_free(namelist);

    return result;
}

/*
 * SplitIdentifierString --- parse a string containing identifiers
 *
 * This is the guts of textToQualifiedNameList, and is exported for use in
 * other situations such as parsing GUC variables.  In the GUC case, it's
 * important to avoid memory leaks, so the API is designed to minimize the
 * amount of stuff that needs to be allocated and freed.
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  rawstring: the input string; must be overwritable!  On return, it's
 *             been modified to contain the separated identifiers.
 *  separator: the separator punctuation expected between identifiers
 *             (typically '.' or ',').  Whitespace may also appear around
 *             identifiers.
 * Outputs:
 *  namelist: filled with a palloc'd list of pointers to identifiers within
 *            rawstring.  Caller should list_free() this even on error return.
 *
 * Returns true if okay, false if there is a syntax error in the string.
 *
 * Note that an empty string is considered okay here, though not in
 * textToQualifiedNameList.
 */
bool
SplitIdentifierString(char *rawstring, char separator,
                      List **namelist)
{
    char       *nextp = rawstring;
    bool        done = false;

    *namelist = NIL;

    while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
        nextp++;                /* skip leading whitespace */

    if (*nextp == '\0')
        return true;            /* allow empty string */

    /* At the top of the loop, we are at start of a new identifier. */
    do
    {
        char       *curname;
        char       *endp;

        if (*nextp == '"')
        {
            /* Quoted name --- collapse quote-quote pairs, no downcasing */
            curname = nextp + 1;
            for (;;)
            {
                endp = strchr(nextp + 1, '"');
                if (endp == NULL)
                    return false;   /* mismatched quotes */
                if (endp[1] != '"')
                    break;      /* found end of quoted name */
                /* Collapse adjacent quotes into one quote, and look again */
                memmove(endp, endp + 1, strlen(endp));
                nextp = endp;
            }
            /* endp now points at the terminating quote */
            nextp = endp + 1;
        }
        else
        {
            /* Unquoted name --- extends to separator or whitespace */
            char       *downname;
            int         len;

            curname = nextp;
            while (*nextp && *nextp != separator &&
                   !scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                nextp++;
            endp = nextp;
            if (curname == nextp)
                return false;   /* empty unquoted name not allowed */

            /*
             * Downcase the identifier, using same code as main lexer does.
             *
             * XXX because we want to overwrite the input in-place, we cannot
             * support a downcasing transformation that increases the string
             * length.  This is not a problem given the current implementation
             * of downcase_truncate_identifier, but we'll probably have to do
             * something about this someday.
             */
            len = endp - curname;
            downname = downcase_truncate_identifier(curname, len, false);
            Assert(strlen(downname) <= len);
            strncpy(curname, downname, len);    /* strncpy is required here */
            pfree(downname);
        }

        while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
            nextp++;            /* skip trailing whitespace */

        if (*nextp == separator)
        {
            nextp++;
            while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                nextp++;        /* skip leading whitespace for next */
            /* we expect another name, so done remains false */
        }
        else if (*nextp == '\0')
            done = true;
        else
            return false;       /* invalid syntax */

        /* Now safe to overwrite separator with a null */
        *endp = '\0';

        /* Truncate name if it's overlength */
        truncate_identifier(curname, strlen(curname), false);

        /*
         * Finished isolating current name --- add it to list
         */
        *namelist = lappend(*namelist, curname);

        /* Loop back if we didn't reach end of string */
    } while (!done);

    return true;
}


/*
 * SplitDirectoriesString --- parse a string containing file/directory names
 *
 * This works fine on file names too; the function name is historical.
 *
 * This is similar to SplitIdentifierString, except that the parsing
 * rules are meant to handle pathnames instead of identifiers: there is
 * no downcasing, embedded spaces are allowed, the max length is MAXPGPATH-1,
 * and we apply canonicalize_path() to each extracted string.  Because of the
 * last, the returned strings are separately palloc'd rather than being
 * pointers into rawstring --- but we still scribble on rawstring.
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  rawstring: the input string; must be modifiable!
 *  separator: the separator punctuation expected between directories
 *             (typically ',' or ';').  Whitespace may also appear around
 *             directories.
 * Outputs:
 *  namelist: filled with a palloc'd list of directory names.
 *            Caller should list_free_deep() this even on error return.
 *
 * Returns true if okay, false if there is a syntax error in the string.
 *
 * Note that an empty string is considered okay here.
 */
bool
SplitDirectoriesString(char *rawstring, char separator,
                       List **namelist)
{
    char       *nextp = rawstring;
    bool        done = false;

    *namelist = NIL;

    while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
        nextp++;                /* skip leading whitespace */

    if (*nextp == '\0')
        return true;            /* allow empty string */

    /* At the top of the loop, we are at start of a new directory. */
    do
    {
        char       *curname;
        char       *endp;

        if (*nextp == '"')
        {
            /* Quoted name --- collapse quote-quote pairs */
            curname = nextp + 1;
            for (;;)
            {
                endp = strchr(nextp + 1, '"');
                if (endp == NULL)
                    return false;   /* mismatched quotes */
                if (endp[1] != '"')
                    break;      /* found end of quoted name */
                /* Collapse adjacent quotes into one quote, and look again */
                memmove(endp, endp + 1, strlen(endp));
                nextp = endp;
            }
            /* endp now points at the terminating quote */
            nextp = endp + 1;
        }
        else
        {
            /* Unquoted name --- extends to separator or end of string */
            curname = endp = nextp;
            while (*nextp && *nextp != separator)
            {
                /* trailing whitespace should not be included in name */
                if (!scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                    endp = nextp + 1;
                nextp++;
            }
            if (curname == endp)
                return false;   /* empty unquoted name not allowed */
        }

        while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
            nextp++;            /* skip trailing whitespace */

        if (*nextp == separator)
        {
            nextp++;
            while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                nextp++;        /* skip leading whitespace for next */
            /* we expect another name, so done remains false */
        }
        else if (*nextp == '\0')
            done = true;
        else
            return false;       /* invalid syntax */

        /* Now safe to overwrite separator with a null */
        *endp = '\0';

        /* Truncate path if it's overlength */
        if (strlen(curname) >= MAXPGPATH)
            curname[MAXPGPATH - 1] = '\0';

        /*
         * Finished isolating current name --- add it to list
         */
        curname = pstrdup(curname);
        canonicalize_path(curname);
        *namelist = lappend(*namelist, curname);

        /* Loop back if we didn't reach end of string */
    } while (!done);

    return true;
}


/*
 * SplitGUCList --- parse a string containing identifiers or file names
 *
 * This is used to split the value of a GUC_LIST_QUOTE GUC variable, without
 * presuming whether the elements will be taken as identifiers or file names.
 * We assume the input has already been through flatten_set_variable_args(),
 * so that we need never downcase (if appropriate, that was done already).
 * Nor do we ever truncate, since we don't know the correct max length.
 * We disallow embedded whitespace for simplicity (it shouldn't matter,
 * because any embedded whitespace should have led to double-quoting).
 * Otherwise the API is identical to SplitIdentifierString.
 *
 * XXX it's annoying to have so many copies of this string-splitting logic.
 * However, it's not clear that having one function with a bunch of option
 * flags would be much better.
 *
 * XXX there is a version of this function in src/bin/pg_dump/dumputils.c.
 * Be sure to update that if you have to change this.
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  rawstring: the input string; must be overwritable!  On return, it's
 *             been modified to contain the separated identifiers.
 *  separator: the separator punctuation expected between identifiers
 *             (typically '.' or ',').  Whitespace may also appear around
 *             identifiers.
 * Outputs:
 *  namelist: filled with a palloc'd list of pointers to identifiers within
 *            rawstring.  Caller should list_free() this even on error return.
 *
 * Returns true if okay, false if there is a syntax error in the string.
 */
bool
SplitGUCList(char *rawstring, char separator,
             List **namelist)
{
    char       *nextp = rawstring;
    bool        done = false;

    *namelist = NIL;

    while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
        nextp++;                /* skip leading whitespace */

    if (*nextp == '\0')
        return true;            /* allow empty string */

    /* At the top of the loop, we are at start of a new identifier. */
    do
    {
        char       *curname;
        char       *endp;

        if (*nextp == '"')
        {
            /* Quoted name --- collapse quote-quote pairs */
            curname = nextp + 1;
            for (;;)
            {
                endp = strchr(nextp + 1, '"');
                if (endp == NULL)
                    return false;   /* mismatched quotes */
                if (endp[1] != '"')
                    break;      /* found end of quoted name */
                /* Collapse adjacent quotes into one quote, and look again */
                memmove(endp, endp + 1, strlen(endp));
                nextp = endp;
            }
            /* endp now points at the terminating quote */
            nextp = endp + 1;
        }
        else
        {
            /* Unquoted name --- extends to separator or whitespace */
            curname = nextp;
            while (*nextp && *nextp != separator &&
                   !scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                nextp++;
            endp = nextp;
            if (curname == nextp)
                return false;   /* empty unquoted name not allowed */
        }

        while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
            nextp++;            /* skip trailing whitespace */

        if (*nextp == separator)
        {
            nextp++;
            while (scanner_isspace(*nextp))
                nextp++;        /* skip leading whitespace for next */
            /* we expect another name, so done remains false */
        }
        else if (*nextp == '\0')
            done = true;
        else
            return false;       /* invalid syntax */

        /* Now safe to overwrite separator with a null */
        *endp = '\0';

        /*
         * Finished isolating current name --- add it to list
         */
        *namelist = lappend(*namelist, curname);

        /* Loop back if we didn't reach end of string */
    } while (!done);

    return true;
}


/*****************************************************************************
 *  Comparison Functions used for bytea
 *
 * Note: btree indexes need these routines not to leak memory; therefore,
 * be careful to free working copies of toasted datums.  Most places don't
 * need to be so careful.
 *****************************************************************************/

Datum
byteaeq(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       arg1 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
    Datum       arg2 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(1);
    bool        result;
    Size        len1,
                len2;

    /*
     * We can use a fast path for unequal lengths, which might save us from
     * having to detoast one or both values.
     */
    len1 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg1);
    len2 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg2);
    if (len1 != len2)
        result = false;
    else
    {
        bytea      *barg1 = DatumGetByteaPP(arg1);
        bytea      *barg2 = DatumGetByteaPP(arg2);

        result = (memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(barg1), VARDATA_ANY(barg2),
                         len1 - VARHDRSZ) == 0);

        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(barg1, 0);
        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(barg2, 1);
    }

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
byteane(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       arg1 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
    Datum       arg2 = PG_GETARG_DATUM(1);
    bool        result;
    Size        len1,
                len2;

    /*
     * We can use a fast path for unequal lengths, which might save us from
     * having to detoast one or both values.
     */
    len1 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg1);
    len2 = toast_raw_datum_size(arg2);
    if (len1 != len2)
        result = true;
    else
    {
        bytea      *barg1 = DatumGetByteaPP(arg1);
        bytea      *barg2 = DatumGetByteaPP(arg2);

        result = (memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(barg1), VARDATA_ANY(barg2),
                         len1 - VARHDRSZ) != 0);

        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(barg1, 0);
        PG_FREE_IF_COPY(barg2, 1);
    }

    PG_RETURN_BOOL(result);
}

Datum
bytealt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *arg1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *arg2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         len1,
                len2;
    int         cmp;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    cmp = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL((cmp < 0) || ((cmp == 0) && (len1 < len2)));
}

Datum
byteale(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *arg1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *arg2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         len1,
                len2;
    int         cmp;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    cmp = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL((cmp < 0) || ((cmp == 0) && (len1 <= len2)));
}

Datum
byteagt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *arg1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *arg2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         len1,
                len2;
    int         cmp;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    cmp = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL((cmp > 0) || ((cmp == 0) && (len1 > len2)));
}

Datum
byteage(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *arg1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *arg2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         len1,
                len2;
    int         cmp;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    cmp = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_BOOL((cmp > 0) || ((cmp == 0) && (len1 >= len2)));
}

Datum
byteacmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    bytea      *arg1 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(0);
    bytea      *arg2 = PG_GETARG_BYTEA_PP(1);
    int         len1,
                len2;
    int         cmp;

    len1 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
    len2 = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);

    cmp = memcmp(VARDATA_ANY(arg1), VARDATA_ANY(arg2), Min(len1, len2));
    if ((cmp == 0) && (len1 != len2))
        cmp = (len1 < len2) ? -1 : 1;

    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg1, 0);
    PG_FREE_IF_COPY(arg2, 1);

    PG_RETURN_INT32(cmp);
}

Datum
bytea_sortsupport(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    SortSupport ssup = (SortSupport) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    MemoryContext oldcontext;

    oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(ssup->ssup_cxt);

    /* Use generic string SortSupport, forcing "C" collation */
    varstr_sortsupport(ssup, BYTEAOID, C_COLLATION_OID);

    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}

/*
 * appendStringInfoText
 *
 * Append a text to str.
 * Like appendStringInfoString(str, text_to_cstring(t)) but faster.
 */
static void
appendStringInfoText(StringInfo str, const text *t)
{
    appendBinaryStringInfo(str, VARDATA_ANY(t), VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t));
}

/*
 * replace_text
 * replace all occurrences of 'old_sub_str' in 'orig_str'
 * with 'new_sub_str' to form 'new_str'
 *
 * returns 'orig_str' if 'old_sub_str' == '' or 'orig_str' == ''
 * otherwise returns 'new_str'
 */
Datum
replace_text(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *src_text = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *from_sub_text = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    text       *to_sub_text = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(2);
    int         src_text_len;
    int         from_sub_text_len;
    TextPositionState state;
    text       *ret_text;
    int         chunk_len;
    char       *curr_ptr;
    char       *start_ptr;
    StringInfoData str;
    bool        found;

    src_text_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(src_text);
    from_sub_text_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(from_sub_text);

    /* Return unmodified source string if empty source or pattern */
    if (src_text_len < 1 || from_sub_text_len < 1)
    {
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(src_text);
    }

    text_position_setup(src_text, from_sub_text, PG_GET_COLLATION(), &state);

    found = text_position_next(&state);

    /* When the from_sub_text is not found, there is nothing to do. */
    if (!found)
    {
        text_position_cleanup(&state);
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(src_text);
    }
    curr_ptr = text_position_get_match_ptr(&state);
    start_ptr = VARDATA_ANY(src_text);

    initStringInfo(&str);

    do
    {
        CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();

        /* copy the data skipped over by last text_position_next() */
        chunk_len = curr_ptr - start_ptr;
        appendBinaryStringInfo(&str, start_ptr, chunk_len);

        appendStringInfoText(&str, to_sub_text);

        start_ptr = curr_ptr + from_sub_text_len;

        found = text_position_next(&state);
        if (found)
            curr_ptr = text_position_get_match_ptr(&state);
    }
    while (found);

    /* copy trailing data */
    chunk_len = ((char *) src_text + VARSIZE_ANY(src_text)) - start_ptr;
    appendBinaryStringInfo(&str, start_ptr, chunk_len);

    text_position_cleanup(&state);

    ret_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(str.data, str.len);
    pfree(str.data);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(ret_text);
}

/*
 * check_replace_text_has_escape_char
 *
 * check whether replace_text contains escape char.
 */
static bool
check_replace_text_has_escape_char(const text *replace_text)
{
    const char *p = VARDATA_ANY(replace_text);
    const char *p_end = p + VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(replace_text);

    if (pg_database_encoding_max_length() == 1)
    {
        for (; p < p_end; p++)
        {
            if (*p == '\\')
                return true;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        for (; p < p_end; p += pg_mblen(p))
        {
            if (*p == '\\')
                return true;
        }
    }

    return false;
}

/*
 * appendStringInfoRegexpSubstr
 *
 * Append replace_text to str, substituting regexp back references for
 * \n escapes.  start_ptr is the start of the match in the source string,
 * at logical character position data_pos.
 */
static void
appendStringInfoRegexpSubstr(StringInfo str, text *replace_text,
                             regmatch_t *pmatch,
                             char *start_ptr, int data_pos)
{
    const char *p = VARDATA_ANY(replace_text);
    const char *p_end = p + VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(replace_text);
    int         eml = pg_database_encoding_max_length();

    for (;;)
    {
        const char *chunk_start = p;
        int         so;
        int         eo;

        /* Find next escape char. */
        if (eml == 1)
        {
            for (; p < p_end && *p != '\\'; p++)
                 /* nothing */ ;
        }
        else
        {
            for (; p < p_end && *p != '\\'; p += pg_mblen(p))
                 /* nothing */ ;
        }

        /* Copy the text we just scanned over, if any. */
        if (p > chunk_start)
            appendBinaryStringInfo(str, chunk_start, p - chunk_start);

        /* Done if at end of string, else advance over escape char. */
        if (p >= p_end)
            break;
        p++;

        if (p >= p_end)
        {
            /* Escape at very end of input.  Treat same as unexpected char */
            appendStringInfoChar(str, '\\');
            break;
        }

        if (*p >= '1' && *p <= '9')
        {
            /* Use the back reference of regexp. */
            int         idx = *p - '0';

            so = pmatch[idx].rm_so;
            eo = pmatch[idx].rm_eo;
            p++;
        }
        else if (*p == '&')
        {
            /* Use the entire matched string. */
            so = pmatch[0].rm_so;
            eo = pmatch[0].rm_eo;
            p++;
        }
        else if (*p == '\\')
        {
            /* \\ means transfer one \ to output. */
            appendStringInfoChar(str, '\\');
            p++;
            continue;
        }
        else
        {
            /*
             * If escape char is not followed by any expected char, just treat
             * it as ordinary data to copy.  (XXX would it be better to throw
             * an error?)
             */
            appendStringInfoChar(str, '\\');
            continue;
        }

        if (so != -1 && eo != -1)
        {
            /*
             * Copy the text that is back reference of regexp.  Note so and eo
             * are counted in characters not bytes.
             */
            char       *chunk_start;
            int         chunk_len;

            Assert(so >= data_pos);
            chunk_start = start_ptr;
            chunk_start += charlen_to_bytelen(chunk_start, so - data_pos);
            chunk_len = charlen_to_bytelen(chunk_start, eo - so);
            appendBinaryStringInfo(str, chunk_start, chunk_len);
        }
    }
}

#define REGEXP_REPLACE_BACKREF_CNT      10

/*
 * replace_text_regexp
 *
 * replace text that matches to regexp in src_text to replace_text.
 *
 * Note: to avoid having to include regex.h in builtins.h, we declare
 * the regexp argument as void *, but really it's regex_t *.
 */
text *
replace_text_regexp(text *src_text, void *regexp,
                    text *replace_text, bool glob)
{
    text       *ret_text;
    regex_t    *re = (regex_t *) regexp;
    int         src_text_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(src_text);
    StringInfoData buf;
    regmatch_t  pmatch[REGEXP_REPLACE_BACKREF_CNT];
    pg_wchar   *data;
    size_t      data_len;
    int         search_start;
    int         data_pos;
    char       *start_ptr;
    bool        have_escape;

    initStringInfo(&buf);

    /* Convert data string to wide characters. */
    data = (pg_wchar *) palloc((src_text_len + 1) * sizeof(pg_wchar));
    data_len = pg_mb2wchar_with_len(VARDATA_ANY(src_text), data, src_text_len);

    /* Check whether replace_text has escape char. */
    have_escape = check_replace_text_has_escape_char(replace_text);

    /* start_ptr points to the data_pos'th character of src_text */
    start_ptr = (char *) VARDATA_ANY(src_text);
    data_pos = 0;

    search_start = 0;
    while (search_start <= data_len)
    {
        int         regexec_result;

        CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();

        regexec_result = pg_regexec(re,
                                    data,
                                    data_len,
                                    search_start,
                                    NULL,   /* no details */
                                    REGEXP_REPLACE_BACKREF_CNT,
                                    pmatch,
                                    0);

        if (regexec_result == REG_NOMATCH)
            break;

        if (regexec_result != REG_OKAY)
        {
            char        errMsg[100];

            CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();
            pg_regerror(regexec_result, re, errMsg, sizeof(errMsg));
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_REGULAR_EXPRESSION),
                     errmsg("regular expression failed: %s", errMsg)));
        }

        /*
         * Copy the text to the left of the match position.  Note we are given
         * character not byte indexes.
         */
        if (pmatch[0].rm_so - data_pos > 0)
        {
            int         chunk_len;

            chunk_len = charlen_to_bytelen(start_ptr,
                                           pmatch[0].rm_so - data_pos);
            appendBinaryStringInfo(&buf, start_ptr, chunk_len);

            /*
             * Advance start_ptr over that text, to avoid multiple rescans of
             * it if the replace_text contains multiple back-references.
             */
            start_ptr += chunk_len;
            data_pos = pmatch[0].rm_so;
        }

        /*
         * Copy the replace_text. Process back references when the
         * replace_text has escape characters.
         */
        if (have_escape)
            appendStringInfoRegexpSubstr(&buf, replace_text, pmatch,
                                         start_ptr, data_pos);
        else
            appendStringInfoText(&buf, replace_text);

        /* Advance start_ptr and data_pos over the matched text. */
        start_ptr += charlen_to_bytelen(start_ptr,
                                        pmatch[0].rm_eo - data_pos);
        data_pos = pmatch[0].rm_eo;

        /*
         * When global option is off, replace the first instance only.
         */
        if (!glob)
            break;

        /*
         * Advance search position.  Normally we start the next search at the
         * end of the previous match; but if the match was of zero length, we
         * have to advance by one character, or we'd just find the same match
         * again.
         */
        search_start = data_pos;
        if (pmatch[0].rm_so == pmatch[0].rm_eo)
            search_start++;
    }

    /*
     * Copy the text to the right of the last match.
     */
    if (data_pos < data_len)
    {
        int         chunk_len;

        chunk_len = ((char *) src_text + VARSIZE_ANY(src_text)) - start_ptr;
        appendBinaryStringInfo(&buf, start_ptr, chunk_len);
    }

    ret_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(buf.data, buf.len);
    pfree(buf.data);
    pfree(data);

    return ret_text;
}

/*
 * split_text
 * parse input string
 * return ord item (1 based)
 * based on provided field separator
 */
Datum
split_text(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *inputstring = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    text       *fldsep = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    int         fldnum = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);
    int         inputstring_len;
    int         fldsep_len;
    TextPositionState state;
    char       *start_ptr;
    char       *end_ptr;
    text       *result_text;
    bool        found;

    /* field number is 1 based */
    if (fldnum < 1)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                 errmsg("field position must be greater than zero")));

    inputstring_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(inputstring);
    fldsep_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(fldsep);

    /* return empty string for empty input string */
    if (inputstring_len < 1)
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(""));

    /* empty field separator */
    if (fldsep_len < 1)
    {
        text_position_cleanup(&state);
        /* if first field, return input string, else empty string */
        if (fldnum == 1)
            PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(inputstring);
        else
            PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(""));
    }

    text_position_setup(inputstring, fldsep, PG_GET_COLLATION(), &state);

    /* identify bounds of first field */
    start_ptr = VARDATA_ANY(inputstring);
    found = text_position_next(&state);

    /* special case if fldsep not found at all */
    if (!found)
    {
        text_position_cleanup(&state);
        /* if field 1 requested, return input string, else empty string */
        if (fldnum == 1)
            PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(inputstring);
        else
            PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(""));
    }
    end_ptr = text_position_get_match_ptr(&state);

    while (found && --fldnum > 0)
    {
        /* identify bounds of next field */
        start_ptr = end_ptr + fldsep_len;
        found = text_position_next(&state);
        if (found)
            end_ptr = text_position_get_match_ptr(&state);
    }

    text_position_cleanup(&state);

    if (fldnum > 0)
    {
        /* N'th field separator not found */
        /* if last field requested, return it, else empty string */
        if (fldnum == 1)
        {
            int         last_len = start_ptr - VARDATA_ANY(inputstring);

            result_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(start_ptr,
                                                   inputstring_len - last_len);
        }
        else
            result_text = cstring_to_text("");
    }
    else
    {
        /* non-last field requested */
        result_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(start_ptr, end_ptr - start_ptr);
    }

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result_text);
}

/*
 * Convenience function to return true when two text params are equal.
 */
static bool
text_isequal(text *txt1, text *txt2, Oid collid)
{
    return DatumGetBool(DirectFunctionCall2Coll(texteq,
                                                collid,
                                                PointerGetDatum(txt1),
                                                PointerGetDatum(txt2)));
}

/*
 * text_to_array
 * parse input string and return text array of elements,
 * based on provided field separator
 */
Datum
text_to_array(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    return text_to_array_internal(fcinfo);
}

/*
 * text_to_array_null
 * parse input string and return text array of elements,
 * based on provided field separator and null string
 *
 * This is a separate entry point only to prevent the regression tests from
 * complaining about different argument sets for the same internal function.
 */
Datum
text_to_array_null(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    return text_to_array_internal(fcinfo);
}

/*
 * common code for text_to_array and text_to_array_null functions
 *
 * These are not strict so we have to test for null inputs explicitly.
 */
static Datum
text_to_array_internal(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *inputstring;
    text       *fldsep;
    text       *null_string;
    int         inputstring_len;
    int         fldsep_len;
    char       *start_ptr;
    text       *result_text;
    bool        is_null;
    ArrayBuildState *astate = NULL;

    /* when input string is NULL, then result is NULL too */
    if (PG_ARGISNULL(0))
        PG_RETURN_NULL();

    inputstring = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);

    /* fldsep can be NULL */
    if (!PG_ARGISNULL(1))
        fldsep = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
    else
        fldsep = NULL;

    /* null_string can be NULL or omitted */
    if (PG_NARGS() > 2 && !PG_ARGISNULL(2))
        null_string = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(2);
    else
        null_string = NULL;

    if (fldsep != NULL)
    {
        /*
         * Normal case with non-null fldsep.  Use the text_position machinery
         * to search for occurrences of fldsep.
         */
        TextPositionState state;

        inputstring_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(inputstring);
        fldsep_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(fldsep);

        /* return empty array for empty input string */
        if (inputstring_len < 1)
            PG_RETURN_ARRAYTYPE_P(construct_empty_array(TEXTOID));

        /*
         * empty field separator: return the input string as a one-element
         * array
         */
        if (fldsep_len < 1)
        {
            Datum       elems[1];
            bool        nulls[1];
            int         dims[1];
            int         lbs[1];

            /* single element can be a NULL too */
            is_null = null_string ? text_isequal(inputstring, null_string, PG_GET_COLLATION()) : false;

            elems[0] = PointerGetDatum(inputstring);
            nulls[0] = is_null;
            dims[0] = 1;
            lbs[0] = 1;
            /* XXX: this hardcodes assumptions about the text type */
            PG_RETURN_ARRAYTYPE_P(construct_md_array(elems, nulls,
                                                     1, dims, lbs,
                                                     TEXTOID, -1, false, 'i'));
        }

        text_position_setup(inputstring, fldsep, PG_GET_COLLATION(), &state);

        start_ptr = VARDATA_ANY(inputstring);

        for (;;)
        {
            bool        found;
            char       *end_ptr;
            int         chunk_len;

            CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();

            found = text_position_next(&state);
            if (!found)
            {
                /* fetch last field */
                chunk_len = ((char *) inputstring + VARSIZE_ANY(inputstring)) - start_ptr;
                end_ptr = NULL; /* not used, but some compilers complain */
            }
            else
            {
                /* fetch non-last field */
                end_ptr = text_position_get_match_ptr(&state);
                chunk_len = end_ptr - start_ptr;
            }

            /* must build a temp text datum to pass to accumArrayResult */
            result_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(start_ptr, chunk_len);
            is_null = null_string ? text_isequal(result_text, null_string, PG_GET_COLLATION()) : false;

            /* stash away this field */
            astate = accumArrayResult(astate,
                                      PointerGetDatum(result_text),
                                      is_null,
                                      TEXTOID,
                                      CurrentMemoryContext);

            pfree(result_text);

            if (!found)
                break;

            start_ptr = end_ptr + fldsep_len;
        }

        text_position_cleanup(&state);
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * When fldsep is NULL, each character in the inputstring becomes an
         * element in the result array.  The separator is effectively the
         * space between characters.
         */
        inputstring_len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(inputstring);

        /* return empty array for empty input string */
        if (inputstring_len < 1)
            PG_RETURN_ARRAYTYPE_P(construct_empty_array(TEXTOID));

        start_ptr = VARDATA_ANY(inputstring);

        while (inputstring_len > 0)
        {
            int         chunk_len = pg_mblen(start_ptr);

            CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();

            /* must build a temp text datum to pass to accumArrayResult */
            result_text = cstring_to_text_with_len(start_ptr, chunk_len);
            is_null = null_string ? text_isequal(result_text, null_string, PG_GET_COLLATION()) : false;

            /* stash away this field */
            astate = accumArrayResult(astate,
                                      PointerGetDatum(result_text),
                                      is_null,
                                      TEXTOID,
                                      CurrentMemoryContext);

            pfree(result_text);

            start_ptr += chunk_len;
            inputstring_len -= chunk_len;
        }
    }

    PG_RETURN_ARRAYTYPE_P(makeArrayResult(astate,
                                          CurrentMemoryContext));
}

/*
 * array_to_text
 * concatenate Cstring representation of input array elements
 * using provided field separator
 */
Datum
array_to_text(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    ArrayType  *v = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
    char       *fldsep = text_to_cstring(PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1));

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(array_to_text_internal(fcinfo, v, fldsep, NULL));
}

/*
 * array_to_text_null
 * concatenate Cstring representation of input array elements
 * using provided field separator and null string
 *
 * This version is not strict so we have to test for null inputs explicitly.
 */
Datum
array_to_text_null(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    ArrayType  *v;
    char       *fldsep;
    char       *null_string;

    /* returns NULL when first or second parameter is NULL */
    if (PG_ARGISNULL(0) || PG_ARGISNULL(1))
        PG_RETURN_NULL();

    v = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
    fldsep = text_to_cstring(PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1));

    /* NULL null string is passed through as a null pointer */
    if (!PG_ARGISNULL(2))
        null_string = text_to_cstring(PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(2));
    else
        null_string = NULL;

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(array_to_text_internal(fcinfo, v, fldsep, null_string));
}

/*
 * common code for array_to_text and array_to_text_null functions
 */
static text *
array_to_text_internal(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo, ArrayType *v,
                       const char *fldsep, const char *null_string)
{
    text       *result;
    int         nitems,
               *dims,
                ndims;
    Oid         element_type;
    int         typlen;
    bool        typbyval;
    char        typalign;
    StringInfoData buf;
    bool        printed = false;
    char       *p;
    bits8      *bitmap;
    int         bitmask;
    int         i;
    ArrayMetaState *my_extra;

    ndims = ARR_NDIM(v);
    dims = ARR_DIMS(v);
    nitems = ArrayGetNItems(ndims, dims);

    /* if there are no elements, return an empty string */
    if (nitems == 0)
        return cstring_to_text_with_len("", 0);

    element_type = ARR_ELEMTYPE(v);
    initStringInfo(&buf);

    /*
     * We arrange to look up info about element type, including its output
     * conversion proc, only once per series of calls, assuming the element
     * type doesn't change underneath us.
     */
    my_extra = (ArrayMetaState *) fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra;
    if (my_extra == NULL)
    {
        fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra = MemoryContextAlloc(fcinfo->flinfo->fn_mcxt,
                                                      sizeof(ArrayMetaState));
        my_extra = (ArrayMetaState *) fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra;
        my_extra->element_type = ~element_type;
    }

    if (my_extra->element_type != element_type)
    {
        /*
         * Get info about element type, including its output conversion proc
         */
        get_type_io_data(element_type, IOFunc_output,
                         &my_extra->typlen, &my_extra->typbyval,
                         &my_extra->typalign, &my_extra->typdelim,
                         &my_extra->typioparam, &my_extra->typiofunc);
        fmgr_info_cxt(my_extra->typiofunc, &my_extra->proc,
                      fcinfo->flinfo->fn_mcxt);
        my_extra->element_type = element_type;
    }
    typlen = my_extra->typlen;
    typbyval = my_extra->typbyval;
    typalign = my_extra->typalign;

    p = ARR_DATA_PTR(v);
    bitmap = ARR_NULLBITMAP(v);
    bitmask = 1;

    for (i = 0; i < nitems; i++)
    {
        Datum       itemvalue;
        char       *value;

        /* Get source element, checking for NULL */
        if (bitmap && (*bitmap & bitmask) == 0)
        {
            /* if null_string is NULL, we just ignore null elements */
            if (null_string != NULL)
            {
                if (printed)
                    appendStringInfo(&buf, "%s%s", fldsep, null_string);
                else
                    appendStringInfoString(&buf, null_string);
                printed = true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            itemvalue = fetch_att(p, typbyval, typlen);

            value = OutputFunctionCall(&my_extra->proc, itemvalue);

            if (printed)
                appendStringInfo(&buf, "%s%s", fldsep, value);
            else
                appendStringInfoString(&buf, value);
            printed = true;

            p = att_addlength_pointer(p, typlen, p);
            p = (char *) att_align_nominal(p, typalign);
        }

        /* advance bitmap pointer if any */
        if (bitmap)
        {
            bitmask <<= 1;
            if (bitmask == 0x100)
            {
                bitmap++;
                bitmask = 1;
            }
        }
    }

    result = cstring_to_text_with_len(buf.data, buf.len);
    pfree(buf.data);

    return result;
}

#define HEXBASE 16
/*
 * Convert an int32 to a string containing a base 16 (hex) representation of
 * the number.
 */
Datum
to_hex32(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    uint32      value = (uint32) PG_GETARG_INT32(0);
    char       *ptr;
    const char *digits = "0123456789abcdef";
    char        buf[32];        /* bigger than needed, but reasonable */

    ptr = buf + sizeof(buf) - 1;
    *ptr = '\0';

    do
    {
        *--ptr = digits[value % HEXBASE];
        value /= HEXBASE;
    } while (ptr > buf && value);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(ptr));
}

/*
 * Convert an int64 to a string containing a base 16 (hex) representation of
 * the number.
 */
Datum
to_hex64(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    uint64      value = (uint64) PG_GETARG_INT64(0);
    char       *ptr;
    const char *digits = "0123456789abcdef";
    char        buf[32];        /* bigger than needed, but reasonable */

    ptr = buf + sizeof(buf) - 1;
    *ptr = '\0';

    do
    {
        *--ptr = digits[value % HEXBASE];
        value /= HEXBASE;
    } while (ptr > buf && value);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text(ptr));
}

/*
 * Return the size of a datum, possibly compressed
 *
 * Works on any data type
 */
Datum
pg_column_size(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    Datum       value = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
    int32       result;
    int         typlen;

    /* On first call, get the input type's typlen, and save at *fn_extra */
    if (fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra == NULL)
    {
        /* Lookup the datatype of the supplied argument */
        Oid         argtypeid = get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, 0);

        typlen = get_typlen(argtypeid);
        if (typlen == 0)        /* should not happen */
            elog(ERROR, "cache lookup failed for type %u", argtypeid);

        fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra = MemoryContextAlloc(fcinfo->flinfo->fn_mcxt,
                                                      sizeof(int));
        *((int *) fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra) = typlen;
    }
    else
        typlen = *((int *) fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra);

    if (typlen == -1)
    {
        /* varlena type, possibly toasted */
        result = toast_datum_size(value);
    }
    else if (typlen == -2)
    {
        /* cstring */
        result = strlen(DatumGetCString(value)) + 1;
    }
    else
    {
        /* ordinary fixed-width type */
        result = typlen;
    }

    PG_RETURN_INT32(result);
}

/*
 * string_agg - Concatenates values and returns string.
 *
 * Syntax: string_agg(value text, delimiter text) RETURNS text
 *
 * Note: Any NULL values are ignored. The first-call delimiter isn't
 * actually used at all, and on subsequent calls the delimiter precedes
 * the associated value.
 */

/* subroutine to initialize state */
static StringInfo
makeStringAggState(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo)
{
    StringInfo  state;
    MemoryContext aggcontext;
    MemoryContext oldcontext;

    if (!AggCheckCallContext(fcinfo, &aggcontext))
    {
        /* cannot be called directly because of internal-type argument */
        elog(ERROR, "string_agg_transfn called in non-aggregate context");
    }

    /*
     * Create state in aggregate context.  It'll stay there across subsequent
     * calls.
     */
    oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(aggcontext);
    state = makeStringInfo();
    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);

    return state;
}

Datum
string_agg_transfn(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  state;

    state = PG_ARGISNULL(0) ? NULL : (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);

    /* Append the value unless null. */
    if (!PG_ARGISNULL(1))
    {
        /* On the first time through, we ignore the delimiter. */
        if (state == NULL)
            state = makeStringAggState(fcinfo);
        else if (!PG_ARGISNULL(2))
            appendStringInfoText(state, PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(2));  /* delimiter */

        appendStringInfoText(state, PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1));  /* value */
    }

    /*
     * The transition type for string_agg() is declared to be "internal",
     * which is a pass-by-value type the same size as a pointer.
     */
    PG_RETURN_POINTER(state);
}

Datum
string_agg_finalfn(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    StringInfo  state;

    /* cannot be called directly because of internal-type argument */
    Assert(AggCheckCallContext(fcinfo, NULL));

    state = PG_ARGISNULL(0) ? NULL : (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);

    if (state != NULL)
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text_with_len(state->data, state->len));
    else
        PG_RETURN_NULL();
}

/*
 * Prepare cache with fmgr info for the output functions of the datatypes of
 * the arguments of a concat-like function, beginning with argument "argidx".
 * (Arguments before that will have corresponding slots in the resulting
 * FmgrInfo array, but we don't fill those slots.)
 */
static FmgrInfo *
build_concat_foutcache(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo, int argidx)
{
    FmgrInfo   *foutcache;
    int         i;

    /* We keep the info in fn_mcxt so it survives across calls */
    foutcache = (FmgrInfo *) MemoryContextAlloc(fcinfo->flinfo->fn_mcxt,
                                                PG_NARGS() * sizeof(FmgrInfo));

    for (i = argidx; i < PG_NARGS(); i++)
    {
        Oid         valtype;
        Oid         typOutput;
        bool        typIsVarlena;

        valtype = get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, i);
        if (!OidIsValid(valtype))
            elog(ERROR, "could not determine data type of concat() input");

        getTypeOutputInfo(valtype, &typOutput, &typIsVarlena);
        fmgr_info_cxt(typOutput, &foutcache[i], fcinfo->flinfo->fn_mcxt);
    }

    fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra = foutcache;

    return foutcache;
}

/*
 * Implementation of both concat() and concat_ws().
 *
 * sepstr is the separator string to place between values.
 * argidx identifies the first argument to concatenate (counting from zero);
 * note that this must be constant across any one series of calls.
 *
 * Returns NULL if result should be NULL, else text value.
 */
static text *
concat_internal(const char *sepstr, int argidx,
                FunctionCallInfo fcinfo)
{
    text       *result;
    StringInfoData str;
    FmgrInfo   *foutcache;
    bool        first_arg = true;
    int         i;

    /*
     * concat(VARIADIC some-array) is essentially equivalent to
     * array_to_text(), ie concat the array elements with the given separator.
     * So we just pass the case off to that code.
     */
    if (get_fn_expr_variadic(fcinfo->flinfo))
    {
        ArrayType  *arr;

        /* Should have just the one argument */
        Assert(argidx == PG_NARGS() - 1);

        /* concat(VARIADIC NULL) is defined as NULL */
        if (PG_ARGISNULL(argidx))
            return NULL;

        /*
         * Non-null argument had better be an array.  We assume that any call
         * context that could let get_fn_expr_variadic return true will have
         * checked that a VARIADIC-labeled parameter actually is an array.  So
         * it should be okay to just Assert that it's an array rather than
         * doing a full-fledged error check.
         */
        Assert(OidIsValid(get_base_element_type(get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, argidx))));

        /* OK, safe to fetch the array value */
        arr = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(argidx);

        /*
         * And serialize the array.  We tell array_to_text to ignore null
         * elements, which matches the behavior of the loop below.
         */
        return array_to_text_internal(fcinfo, arr, sepstr, NULL);
    }

    /* Normal case without explicit VARIADIC marker */
    initStringInfo(&str);

    /* Get output function info, building it if first time through */
    foutcache = (FmgrInfo *) fcinfo->flinfo->fn_extra;
    if (foutcache == NULL)
        foutcache = build_concat_foutcache(fcinfo, argidx);

    for (i = argidx; i < PG_NARGS(); i++)
    {
        if (!PG_ARGISNULL(i))
        {
            Datum       value = PG_GETARG_DATUM(i);

            /* add separator if appropriate */
            if (first_arg)
                first_arg = false;
            else
                appendStringInfoString(&str, sepstr);

            /* call the appropriate type output function, append the result */
            appendStringInfoString(&str,
                                   OutputFunctionCall(&foutcache[i], value));
        }
    }

    result = cstring_to_text_with_len(str.data, str.len);
    pfree(str.data);

    return result;
}

/*
 * Concatenate all arguments. NULL arguments are ignored.
 */
Datum
text_concat(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *result;

    result = concat_internal("", 0, fcinfo);
    if (result == NULL)
        PG_RETURN_NULL();
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}

/*
 * Concatenate all but first argument value with separators. The first
 * parameter is used as the separator. NULL arguments are ignored.
 */
Datum
text_concat_ws(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    char       *sep;
    text       *result;

    /* return NULL when separator is NULL */
    if (PG_ARGISNULL(0))
        PG_RETURN_NULL();
    sep = text_to_cstring(PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0));

    result = concat_internal(sep, 1, fcinfo);
    if (result == NULL)
        PG_RETURN_NULL();
    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}

/*
 * Return first n characters in the string. When n is negative,
 * return all but last |n| characters.
 */
Datum
text_left(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    int         n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);

    if (n < 0)
    {
        text       *str = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
        const char *p = VARDATA_ANY(str);
        int         len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(str);
        int         rlen;

        n = pg_mbstrlen_with_len(p, len) + n;
        rlen = pg_mbcharcliplen(p, len, n);
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text_with_len(p, rlen));
    }
    else
        PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(text_substring(PG_GETARG_DATUM(0), 1, n, false));
}

/*
 * Return last n characters in the string. When n is negative,
 * return all but first |n| characters.
 */
Datum
text_right(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *str = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    const char *p = VARDATA_ANY(str);
    int         len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(str);
    int         n = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
    int         off;

    if (n < 0)
        n = -n;
    else
        n = pg_mbstrlen_with_len(p, len) - n;
    off = pg_mbcharcliplen(p, len, n);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(cstring_to_text_with_len(p + off, len - off));
}

/*
 * Return reversed string
 */
Datum
text_reverse(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *str = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    const char *p = VARDATA_ANY(str);
    int         len = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(str);
    const char *endp = p + len;
    text       *result;
    char       *dst;

    result = palloc(len + VARHDRSZ);
    dst = (char *) VARDATA(result) + len;
    SET_VARSIZE(result, len + VARHDRSZ);

    if (pg_database_encoding_max_length() > 1)
    {
        /* multibyte version */
        while (p < endp)
        {
            int         sz;

            sz = pg_mblen(p);
            dst -= sz;
            memcpy(dst, p, sz);
            p += sz;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /* single byte version */
        while (p < endp)
            *(--dst) = *p++;
    }

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}


/*
 * Support macros for text_format()
 */
#define TEXT_FORMAT_FLAG_MINUS  0x0001  /* is minus flag present? */

#define ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(ptr,end_ptr) \
    do { \
        if (++(ptr) >= (end_ptr)) \
            ereport(ERROR, \
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE), \
                     errmsg("unterminated format() type specifier"), \
                     errhint("For a single \"%%\" use \"%%%%\"."))); \
    } while (0)

/*
 * Returns a formatted string
 */
Datum
text_format(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    text       *fmt;
    StringInfoData str;
    const char *cp;
    const char *start_ptr;
    const char *end_ptr;
    text       *result;
    int         arg;
    bool        funcvariadic;
    int         nargs;
    Datum      *elements = NULL;
    bool       *nulls = NULL;
    Oid         element_type = InvalidOid;
    Oid         prev_type = InvalidOid;
    Oid         prev_width_type = InvalidOid;
    FmgrInfo    typoutputfinfo;
    FmgrInfo    typoutputinfo_width;

    /* When format string is null, immediately return null */
    if (PG_ARGISNULL(0))
        PG_RETURN_NULL();

    /* If argument is marked VARIADIC, expand array into elements */
    if (get_fn_expr_variadic(fcinfo->flinfo))
    {
        ArrayType  *arr;
        int16       elmlen;
        bool        elmbyval;
        char        elmalign;
        int         nitems;

        /* Should have just the one argument */
        Assert(PG_NARGS() == 2);

        /* If argument is NULL, we treat it as zero-length array */
        if (PG_ARGISNULL(1))
            nitems = 0;
        else
        {
            /*
             * Non-null argument had better be an array.  We assume that any
             * call context that could let get_fn_expr_variadic return true
             * will have checked that a VARIADIC-labeled parameter actually is
             * an array.  So it should be okay to just Assert that it's an
             * array rather than doing a full-fledged error check.
             */
            Assert(OidIsValid(get_base_element_type(get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, 1))));

            /* OK, safe to fetch the array value */
            arr = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);

            /* Get info about array element type */
            element_type = ARR_ELEMTYPE(arr);
            get_typlenbyvalalign(element_type,
                                 &elmlen, &elmbyval, &elmalign);

            /* Extract all array elements */
            deconstruct_array(arr, element_type, elmlen, elmbyval, elmalign,
                              &elements, &nulls, &nitems);
        }

        nargs = nitems + 1;
        funcvariadic = true;
    }
    else
    {
        /* Non-variadic case, we'll process the arguments individually */
        nargs = PG_NARGS();
        funcvariadic = false;
    }

    /* Setup for main loop. */
    fmt = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
    start_ptr = VARDATA_ANY(fmt);
    end_ptr = start_ptr + VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(fmt);
    initStringInfo(&str);
    arg = 1;                    /* next argument position to print */

    /* Scan format string, looking for conversion specifiers. */
    for (cp = start_ptr; cp < end_ptr; cp++)
    {
        int         argpos;
        int         widthpos;
        int         flags;
        int         width;
        Datum       value;
        bool        isNull;
        Oid         typid;

        /*
         * If it's not the start of a conversion specifier, just copy it to
         * the output buffer.
         */
        if (*cp != '%')
        {
            appendStringInfoCharMacro(&str, *cp);
            continue;
        }

        ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);

        /* Easy case: %% outputs a single % */
        if (*cp == '%')
        {
            appendStringInfoCharMacro(&str, *cp);
            continue;
        }

        /* Parse the optional portions of the format specifier */
        cp = text_format_parse_format(cp, end_ptr,
                                      &argpos, &widthpos,
                                      &flags, &width);

        /*
         * Next we should see the main conversion specifier.  Whether or not
         * an argument position was present, it's known that at least one
         * character remains in the string at this point.  Experience suggests
         * that it's worth checking that that character is one of the expected
         * ones before we try to fetch arguments, so as to produce the least
         * confusing response to a mis-formatted specifier.
         */
        if (strchr("sIL", *cp) == NULL)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                     errmsg("unrecognized format() type specifier \"%c\"",
                            *cp),
                     errhint("For a single \"%%\" use \"%%%%\".")));

        /* If indirect width was specified, get its value */
        if (widthpos >= 0)
        {
            /* Collect the specified or next argument position */
            if (widthpos > 0)
                arg = widthpos;
            if (arg >= nargs)
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                         errmsg("too few arguments for format()")));

            /* Get the value and type of the selected argument */
            if (!funcvariadic)
            {
                value = PG_GETARG_DATUM(arg);
                isNull = PG_ARGISNULL(arg);
                typid = get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, arg);
            }
            else
            {
                value = elements[arg - 1];
                isNull = nulls[arg - 1];
                typid = element_type;
            }
            if (!OidIsValid(typid))
                elog(ERROR, "could not determine data type of format() input");

            arg++;

            /* We can treat NULL width the same as zero */
            if (isNull)
                width = 0;
            else if (typid == INT4OID)
                width = DatumGetInt32(value);
            else if (typid == INT2OID)
                width = DatumGetInt16(value);
            else
            {
                /* For less-usual datatypes, convert to text then to int */
                char       *str;

                if (typid != prev_width_type)
                {
                    Oid         typoutputfunc;
                    bool        typIsVarlena;

                    getTypeOutputInfo(typid, &typoutputfunc, &typIsVarlena);
                    fmgr_info(typoutputfunc, &typoutputinfo_width);
                    prev_width_type = typid;
                }

                str = OutputFunctionCall(&typoutputinfo_width, value);

                /* pg_strtoint32 will complain about bad data or overflow */
                width = pg_strtoint32(str);

                pfree(str);
            }
        }

        /* Collect the specified or next argument position */
        if (argpos > 0)
            arg = argpos;
        if (arg >= nargs)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                     errmsg("too few arguments for format()")));

        /* Get the value and type of the selected argument */
        if (!funcvariadic)
        {
            value = PG_GETARG_DATUM(arg);
            isNull = PG_ARGISNULL(arg);
            typid = get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo->flinfo, arg);
        }
        else
        {
            value = elements[arg - 1];
            isNull = nulls[arg - 1];
            typid = element_type;
        }
        if (!OidIsValid(typid))
            elog(ERROR, "could not determine data type of format() input");

        arg++;

        /*
         * Get the appropriate typOutput function, reusing previous one if
         * same type as previous argument.  That's particularly useful in the
         * variadic-array case, but often saves work even for ordinary calls.
         */
        if (typid != prev_type)
        {
            Oid         typoutputfunc;
            bool        typIsVarlena;

            getTypeOutputInfo(typid, &typoutputfunc, &typIsVarlena);
            fmgr_info(typoutputfunc, &typoutputfinfo);
            prev_type = typid;
        }

        /*
         * And now we can format the value.
         */
        switch (*cp)
        {
            case 's':
            case 'I':
            case 'L':
                text_format_string_conversion(&str, *cp, &typoutputfinfo,
                                              value, isNull,
                                              flags, width);
                break;
            default:
                /* should not get here, because of previous check */
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                         errmsg("unrecognized format() type specifier \"%c\"",
                                *cp),
                         errhint("For a single \"%%\" use \"%%%%\".")));
                break;
        }
    }

    /* Don't need deconstruct_array results anymore. */
    if (elements != NULL)
        pfree(elements);
    if (nulls != NULL)
        pfree(nulls);

    /* Generate results. */
    result = cstring_to_text_with_len(str.data, str.len);
    pfree(str.data);

    PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(result);
}

/*
 * Parse contiguous digits as a decimal number.
 *
 * Returns true if some digits could be parsed.
 * The value is returned into *value, and *ptr is advanced to the next
 * character to be parsed.
 *
 * Note parsing invariant: at least one character is known available before
 * string end (end_ptr) at entry, and this is still true at exit.
 */
static bool
text_format_parse_digits(const char **ptr, const char *end_ptr, int *value)
{
    bool        found = false;
    const char *cp = *ptr;
    int         val = 0;

    while (*cp >= '0' && *cp <= '9')
    {
        int8        digit = (*cp - '0');

        if (unlikely(pg_mul_s32_overflow(val, 10, &val)) ||
            unlikely(pg_add_s32_overflow(val, digit, &val)))
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
                     errmsg("number is out of range")));
        ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);
        found = true;
    }

    *ptr = cp;
    *value = val;

    return found;
}

/*
 * Parse a format specifier (generally following the SUS printf spec).
 *
 * We have already advanced over the initial '%', and we are looking for
 * [argpos][flags][width]type (but the type character is not consumed here).
 *
 * Inputs are start_ptr (the position after '%') and end_ptr (string end + 1).
 * Output parameters:
 *  argpos: argument position for value to be printed.  -1 means unspecified.
 *  widthpos: argument position for width.  Zero means the argument position
 *          was unspecified (ie, take the next arg) and -1 means no width
 *          argument (width was omitted or specified as a constant).
 *  flags: bitmask of flags.
 *  width: directly-specified width value.  Zero means the width was omitted
 *          (note it's not necessary to distinguish this case from an explicit
 *          zero width value).
 *
 * The function result is the next character position to be parsed, ie, the
 * location where the type character is/should be.
 *
 * Note parsing invariant: at least one character is known available before
 * string end (end_ptr) at entry, and this is still true at exit.
 */
static const char *
text_format_parse_format(const char *start_ptr, const char *end_ptr,
                         int *argpos, int *widthpos,
                         int *flags, int *width)
{
    const char *cp = start_ptr;
    int         n;

    /* set defaults for output parameters */
    *argpos = -1;
    *widthpos = -1;
    *flags = 0;
    *width = 0;

    /* try to identify first number */
    if (text_format_parse_digits(&cp, end_ptr, &n))
    {
        if (*cp != '$')
        {
            /* Must be just a width and a type, so we're done */
            *width = n;
            return cp;
        }
        /* The number was argument position */
        *argpos = n;
        /* Explicit 0 for argument index is immediately refused */
        if (n == 0)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                     errmsg("format specifies argument 0, but arguments are numbered from 1")));
        ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);
    }

    /* Handle flags (only minus is supported now) */
    while (*cp == '-')
    {
        *flags |= TEXT_FORMAT_FLAG_MINUS;
        ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);
    }

    if (*cp == '*')
    {
        /* Handle indirect width */
        ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);
        if (text_format_parse_digits(&cp, end_ptr, &n))
        {
            /* number in this position must be closed by $ */
            if (*cp != '$')
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                         errmsg("width argument position must be ended by \"$\"")));
            /* The number was width argument position */
            *widthpos = n;
            /* Explicit 0 for argument index is immediately refused */
            if (n == 0)
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE),
                         errmsg("format specifies argument 0, but arguments are numbered from 1")));
            ADVANCE_PARSE_POINTER(cp, end_ptr);
        }
        else
            *widthpos = 0;      /* width's argument position is unspecified */
    }
    else
    {
        /* Check for direct width specification */
        if (text_format_parse_digits(&cp, end_ptr, &n))
            *width = n;
    }

    /* cp should now be pointing at type character */
    return cp;
}

/*
 * Format a %s, %I, or %L conversion
 */
static void
text_format_string_conversion(StringInfo buf, char conversion,
                              FmgrInfo *typOutputInfo,
                              Datum value, bool isNull,
                              int flags, int width)
{
    char       *str;

    /* Handle NULL arguments before trying to stringify the value. */
    if (isNull)
    {
        if (conversion == 's')
            text_format_append_string(buf, "", flags, width);
        else if (conversion == 'L')
            text_format_append_string(buf, "NULL", flags, width);
        else if (conversion == 'I')
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_NULL_VALUE_NOT_ALLOWED),
                     errmsg("null values cannot be formatted as an SQL identifier")));
        return;
    }

    /* Stringify. */
    str = OutputFunctionCall(typOutputInfo, value);

    /* Escape. */
    if (conversion == 'I')
    {
        /* quote_identifier may or may not allocate a new string. */
        text_format_append_string(buf, quote_identifier(str), flags, width);
    }
    else if (conversion == 'L')
    {
        char       *qstr = quote_literal_cstr(str);

        text_format_append_string(buf, qstr, flags, width);
        /* quote_literal_cstr() always allocates a new string */
        pfree(qstr);
    }
    else
        text_format_append_string(buf, str, flags, width);

    /* Cleanup. */
    pfree(str);
}

/*
 * Append str to buf, padding as directed by flags/width
 */
static void
text_format_append_string(StringInfo buf, const char *str,
                          int flags, int width)
{
    bool        align_to_left = false;
    int         len;

    /* fast path for typical easy case */
    if (width == 0)
    {
        appendStringInfoString(buf, str);
        return;
    }

    if (width < 0)
    {
        /* Negative width: implicit '-' flag, then take absolute value */
        align_to_left = true;
        /* -INT_MIN is undefined */
        if (width <= INT_MIN)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
                     errmsg("number is out of range")));
        width = -width;
    }
    else if (flags & TEXT_FORMAT_FLAG_MINUS)
        align_to_left = true;

    len = pg_mbstrlen(str);
    if (align_to_left)
    {
        /* left justify */
        appendStringInfoString(buf, str);
        if (len < width)
            appendStringInfoSpaces(buf, width - len);
    }
    else
    {
        /* right justify */
        if (len < width)
            appendStringInfoSpaces(buf, width - len);
        appendStringInfoString(buf, str);
    }
}

/*
 * text_format_nv - nonvariadic wrapper for text_format function.
 *
 * note: this wrapper is necessary to pass the sanity check in opr_sanity,
 * which checks that all built-in functions that share the implementing C
 * function take the same number of arguments.
 */
Datum
text_format_nv(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    return text_format(fcinfo);
}

/*
 * Helper function for Levenshtein distance functions. Faster than memcmp(),
 * for this use case.
 */
static inline bool
rest_of_char_same(const char *s1, const char *s2, int len)
{
    while (len > 0)
    {
        len--;
        if (s1[len] != s2[len])
            return false;
    }
    return true;
}

/* Expand each Levenshtein distance variant */
#include "levenshtein.c"
#define LEVENSHTEIN_LESS_EQUAL
#include "levenshtein.c"